WikiVet English - User contributions [en]

File:Morelia viridis 5.jpg

2010-05-25T12:15:08Z

Cporteous:

{|border="1" cellpadding="5"
!Rights
|© Tim Vickers (WikiCommons)
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!Author
|Tim Vickers
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Snake

2010-05-25T12:12:45Z

Cporteous:

{{frontpage
|pagetitle = Snake Section
 
|pagebody = Welcome to the Snake Section of WikiVet. Here we aim to provide links to the pages that are relevant to snakes.|
|contenttitle = Content
|contentbody =
<big>
 
[[Snake Taxonomy|Taxonomy]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Snake Anatomy|Anatomy]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Snake Physiology|Physiology]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Snake Husbandry|Husbandry]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Snake Diagnostics|Diagnostics]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Snake Procedures|Procedures]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Snake Diseases|Diseases]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Snake Species|Species]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Lizard and Snake Glossary|Glossary]]
 
 
 
[[Lizard and Snake Resources|Resources]]
 
 
 
[[:Category:Snake Quizzes|Quiz]]
 
</big>
|logo = Morelia viridis 5.jpg
}}

File:Morelia viridis 5.jpg

2010-05-25T12:08:53Z

Cporteous:

Snake Respiratory System

2010-05-18T14:45:57Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:718099 - external_nares_ed_copy.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''External nares''' © RVC]]
The respiratory tract of snakes consists of external nares, nasal cavity, internal nares, glottis, trachea, bronchi, lung(s) and air sac. There is no diaphragm. The external nares communicate with the internal nares through the nasal cavity. The internal nares lie in the roof of the oral cavity and communicate directly with the glottis when the mouth is closed. The glottis lies posterior to the tongue and is not difficult to visualise, making intubation for [[Lizard and Snake Anaesthesia|anaesthesia]] relatively easy. During the feeding process, the glottis is able to move laterally to facilitate respiration while ingesting large prey items, a process which may take considerable time.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Special Senses]].

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
==Trachea==
[[Image:Glottis_&_int_nares_copy.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Internal nares and glottis''' © RVC]]
The trachea has incomplete cartilaginous rings. The ventral portion is rigid cartilage while the dorsal fourth is membranous. The trachea enters the lung at a level near the base of the heart. Some species of snakes have a unique saccular diverticulum of open tracheal rings that acts for hissing or as a tracheal lung for gas exchange when gastric contents preclude normal pulmonary function.
==Lungs==
The lung morphology of snakes is very species-dependent but is obviously elongated. The left lung is always reduced but may vary from 85% of the length of the right lung to being absent. It is relatively well developed in [[Boidae|boids]] but only vestigial in [[Colubridae|colubrids]]. The anterior part of the lung is non-respiratory and functions as an air sac for gas exchange. In [[Boidae|boids]] and [[Colubridae|colubrids]], the respiratory portion of the lung lies between the [[Snake Cardiovascular System|heart]] and the cranial liver whereas in most [[Viperidae|viperids]] and [[Elapidae|elapids]] it is cranial to the [[Snake Cardiovascular System|heart]]. The posterior part is thin-walled and non-respiratory, mainly functions as an air sac and contains a major portion of the volume of the respiratory tract. In terrestrial snakes this air sac terminates in the intestinal mesentery near the gallbladder while in aquatic species it may reach to the [[Cloaca|cloaca]] and is thicker and more muscular.

'''For more information, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Respiration]].
[[Category:Snake_Anatomy]]

Snake Respiratory System

2010-05-18T14:45:34Z

Cporteous:

Lizard and Snake Ulcerative Stomatitis

2010-05-18T14:35:03Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Stomatitis_ed.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''Careful examination of the mouth is necessary since lesions may not be extensive''' © RVC]]
==Upper alimentary tract disease==
Upper alimentary tract disease (UATD) is any pathological condition affecting the oral cavity, pharynx or oesophagus.
==Stomatitis==
Stomatitis (mouth rot) is the most common form of upper alimentary tract disease in reptiles. In snakes stomatitis is a very common multifactorial condition. Infectious agents generally are Gram-negative bacteria. However, stomatitis is usually secondary to stressors such as poor environmental conditions and malnutrition.
==Examination==
Clinical signs of stomatitis are excessive salivation, anorexia, weight loss and lethargy. Initial lesions are gingival petechiation which develop to oedema and ulceration with the presence of caseous material. Other associated problems include osteomyelitis around the teeth, haematogenous spread to other parts of the body, lower respiratory tract disease and a distended subspectacular space from blocked nasolacrimal ducts.
[[Image:Boa_stomatitis_ed.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''Ulcerative stomatitis in a Boa constrictor''' © RVC]]
==Diagnosis==
Stomatitis is usually not confused with other diseases in lizards and snakes and is diagnosed on physical examination. Diagnostic aids are necessary to ascertain the aetiology. The initial step is sampling of the affected area, preferably by biopsy, for bacteriology. This sample can also be submitted for fungal culture. All oral masses should be biopsied and cultured. Radiology is useful to determine bony involvement.
==Therapy==
Treatment of stomatitis needs to be aggressive since progression to systemic disease is not uncommon. Supportive treatment should be instigated immediately though care must be taken not to further traumatise the mouth. The application of topical antiseptics can be used in mild cases while surgical debridement under general anaesthetic may be indicated in severe cases. Secretions, necrotic tissue and debris should be removed by flushing with dilute povidone-iodine or chlorhexidene. Choice of antibiotics is dependent on sensitivity. Length of treatment may be from three weeks in mild cases to several months in more severe ones. If possible, the mouth should be cleaned twice daily during this time. Inadequate length of treatment is a common cause of therapeutic failure.
==Prevention==
Poor husbandry is usually the root cause of many problems with reptiles. The husbandry practices need to evaluated and corrected. One or several of the usual problems will most likely be present - incorrect temperatures and unhygienic conditions probably being the most common. Mild cases of stomatitis sometimes will resolve with only a change to the POTZ of the snake.

[[Category:Lizard_Gastrointestinal_Diseases]]
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Lizard and Snake Ulcerative Stomatitis

2010-05-18T14:34:39Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Stomatitis_ed.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''Careful examination of the mouth is necessary since lesions may not be extensive''' (Copyright © RVC)]]
==Upper alimentary tract disease==
Upper alimentary tract disease (UATD) is any pathological condition affecting the oral cavity, pharynx or oesophagus.
==Stomatitis==
Stomatitis (mouth rot) is the most common form of upper alimentary tract disease in reptiles. In snakes stomatitis is a very common multifactorial condition. Infectious agents generally are Gram-negative bacteria. However, stomatitis is usually secondary to stressors such as poor environmental conditions and malnutrition.
==Examination==
Clinical signs of stomatitis are excessive salivation, anorexia, weight loss and lethargy. Initial lesions are gingival petechiation which develop to oedema and ulceration with the presence of caseous material. Other associated problems include osteomyelitis around the teeth, haematogenous spread to other parts of the body, lower respiratory tract disease and a distended subspectacular space from blocked nasolacrimal ducts.
[[Image:Boa_stomatitis_ed.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''Ulcerative stomatitis in a Boa constrictor''' © RVC]]
==Diagnosis==
Stomatitis is usually not confused with other diseases in lizards and snakes and is diagnosed on physical examination. Diagnostic aids are necessary to ascertain the aetiology. The initial step is sampling of the affected area, preferably by biopsy, for bacteriology. This sample can also be submitted for fungal culture. All oral masses should be biopsied and cultured. Radiology is useful to determine bony involvement.
==Therapy==
Treatment of stomatitis needs to be aggressive since progression to systemic disease is not uncommon. Supportive treatment should be instigated immediately though care must be taken not to further traumatise the mouth. The application of topical antiseptics can be used in mild cases while surgical debridement under general anaesthetic may be indicated in severe cases. Secretions, necrotic tissue and debris should be removed by flushing with dilute povidone-iodine or chlorhexidene. Choice of antibiotics is dependent on sensitivity. Length of treatment may be from three weeks in mild cases to several months in more severe ones. If possible, the mouth should be cleaned twice daily during this time. Inadequate length of treatment is a common cause of therapeutic failure.
==Prevention==
Poor husbandry is usually the root cause of many problems with reptiles. The husbandry practices need to evaluated and corrected. One or several of the usual problems will most likely be present - incorrect temperatures and unhygienic conditions probably being the most common. Mild cases of stomatitis sometimes will resolve with only a change to the POTZ of the snake.

[[Category:Lizard_Gastrointestinal_Diseases]]
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Gout

2010-05-18T14:33:36Z

Cporteous: /* Therapy */

{{unfinished}}
[[Image:Bump2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Biopsy of this swelling revealed renal gout''' © RVC]]
Gout is a metabolic disease where there is a precipitation of urate crystals in tissue. There are two types of gout in animals.
*In primary gout there is an overproduction of [[Uric acid|uric acid]] related to an innate metabolic problem.
*In secondary gout, acquired disease interferes with the [[Uric acid|uric acid]] metabolism. Terrestrial reptiles are predisposed to secondary gout since nitrogenous waste is excreted as [[Uric acid|uric acid]].

In snakes kidney disease often leads to the development of the [[Visceral gout|visceral form of gout]].

'''For more information on excretion, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Excretion]].
==Examination==
History may show poor husbandry including limited access to water. Snakes often present as anorexic and lethargic. Often if kidney disease is involved there is a palpable lump in the caudal third.

'''Fore more information on differential diagnosis of lumps in the body, see''' [[Snake Lumps and Bumps]].
[[Image:Necropsy_copy.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Tophi in renal tissue''' - © RVC]]
==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis of gout may be suspected on history and physical examination. [[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|Biochemistry]] may indicate a hyperuricaemia. Sometimes [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|radiography]] is useful if calcium is deposited with the urate crystals. Biopsy of any lumps may be useful. A definite diagnosis is the demonstration of tophi in diseased tissue.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].

'''For more information on biopsy collection, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].
[[Image:Renal_gout_python_regius.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Tophi in diseased tissue''' © RVC]]
==Therapy==
Supportive treatment especially aimed at rehydration may be useful but gout carries a poor prognosis. Previously allopurinol (a xanthine oxidase inhibitor that decreases formation of uric acid) has been recommended as a treatment of hyperuricaemia in reptiles and birds but in fact appears to be of little use. Other drugs such as uricases (enzymes involved in the degradation of uric acid to allantoin) may be more useful.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Supportive Care]].

==Prevention==
Any bouts of dehydration will predispose to the development of gout so good husbandry is important in prevention. Veterinarians should ensure adequate hydration of reptiles prior to any drug therapy especially the use of nephrotoxic drugs.

'''For more information on good husbandry practices, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry| Snake Husbandry]].
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Respiratory Disease

2010-05-18T14:32:53Z

Cporteous: /* Therapy */

{{review}}
[[Image:Dyspnoeic_royal_python_ed.jpg|350px|thumb|right|'''Open-mouthed breathing in snakes is a sign of serious pulmonary disease''' © RVC]]
==Respiratory disease==
Respiratory disease is common in snakes and respiratory signs are common presenting complaints. Pneumonia has a multifactorial aetiology including poor husbandry and infectious agents, usually Gram-negative bacteria.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Respiratory System]] '''and''' [[Lizard and Snake Respiration|Snake Respiration]].
==Examination==
History usually reveals inappropriate husbandry practices. Snakes with pneumonia will most often be presented when the disease is quite advanced. On [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] dyspnoea may be seen. The respiration rate is generally elevated with exaggerated respiratory movements. Open-mouthed breathing is associated with serious pulmonary disease. A glottal discharge may be present as exudate moves from the lungs. The presence of nasal discharge is common with upper respiratory disease. On auscultation râles may be heard.

'''For information on good husbandry practices, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry|Snake Husbandry]].
[[Image:Boiga_dendritica_Long_hhard.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''The lung of a snake with pneumonia - A mycoplasma species has been isolated by PCR from respiratory tissue.''' © RVC]]
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis of pneumonia is based on [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|history]], [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] and [[:Category: Snake Diagnostics|diagnostic aids]]. [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|Radiography]] is necessary for a definitive diagnosis of pneumonia. Lateral and dorsoventral views should be included. The pulmonary tissue normally has a delicate reticular pattern that is progressively lost caudally. Changes may be diffuse or regionalised. Samples for microbiology may be collected by glottal swabs, tracheal washes or endoscope. Cytology, gram stain and bacterial/fungal culture may help define the aetiology. Biopsy of lung tissue for histology may be diagnostic.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]], [[Lizard and Snake Imaging]] '''and''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].

==Therapy==
A large percentage of respiratory disease has a bacterial component. Treatment should be based on culture and sensitivity but since respiratory disease is usually well advanced by the time of presentation, antibiotics should be commenced immediately. Enrofloxacin is a suitable antibiotic. Nebulisation may be helpful. Non-bacterial infections occur and therapy if possible should be aetiology-specific. Supportive treatment is extremely important. Keep all snakes within the upper end of their [[POTZ]]. Fluid therapy and nutritional support are important but force-feeding should not stress the snake. Water-soluble vitamins may help.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Supportive Care]].

==Prevention==
Poor husbandry practices and non-hygienic conditions predispose to respiratory infections. Bacterial infections are often encountered in immunocompromised snakes. New arrivals into a collection should go through a period of quarantine.

'''For more information, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine]].
[[Category:Snake Diseases]]

Snake Respiratory Disease

2010-05-18T14:32:40Z

Cporteous: /* Therapy */

{{review}}
[[Image:Dyspnoeic_royal_python_ed.jpg|350px|thumb|right|'''Open-mouthed breathing in snakes is a sign of serious pulmonary disease''' © RVC]]
==Respiratory disease==
Respiratory disease is common in snakes and respiratory signs are common presenting complaints. Pneumonia has a multifactorial aetiology including poor husbandry and infectious agents, usually Gram-negative bacteria.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Respiratory System]] '''and''' [[Lizard and Snake Respiration|Snake Respiration]].
==Examination==
History usually reveals inappropriate husbandry practices. Snakes with pneumonia will most often be presented when the disease is quite advanced. On [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] dyspnoea may be seen. The respiration rate is generally elevated with exaggerated respiratory movements. Open-mouthed breathing is associated with serious pulmonary disease. A glottal discharge may be present as exudate moves from the lungs. The presence of nasal discharge is common with upper respiratory disease. On auscultation râles may be heard.

'''For information on good husbandry practices, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry|Snake Husbandry]].
[[Image:Boiga_dendritica_Long_hhard.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''The lung of a snake with pneumonia - A mycoplasma species has been isolated by PCR from respiratory tissue.''' © RVC]]
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis of pneumonia is based on [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|history]], [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] and [[:Category: Snake Diagnostics|diagnostic aids]]. [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|Radiography]] is necessary for a definitive diagnosis of pneumonia. Lateral and dorsoventral views should be included. The pulmonary tissue normally has a delicate reticular pattern that is progressively lost caudally. Changes may be diffuse or regionalised. Samples for microbiology may be collected by glottal swabs, tracheal washes or endoscope. Cytology, gram stain and bacterial/fungal culture may help define the aetiology. Biopsy of lung tissue for histology may be diagnostic.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]], [[Lizard and Snake Imaging]] '''and''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].

==Therapy==
A large percentage of respiratory disease has a bacterial component. Treatment should be based on culture and sensitivity but since respiratory disease is usually well advanced by the time of presentation, antibiotics should be commenced immediately. Enrofloxacin is a suitable antibiotic. Nebulisation may be helpful. Non-bacterial infections occur and therapy if possible should be aetiology-specific. Supportive treatment is extremely important. Keep all snakes within the upper end of their [[POTZ]]. Fluid therapy and nutritional support are important but force-feeding should not stress the snake. Water-soluble vitamins may help.

'''For more information, see [[Snake Supportive Care]].

==Prevention==
Poor husbandry practices and non-hygienic conditions predispose to respiratory infections. Bacterial infections are often encountered in immunocompromised snakes. New arrivals into a collection should go through a period of quarantine.

'''For more information, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine]].
[[Category:Snake Diseases]]

Snake Neurological Diseases

2010-05-18T14:31:53Z

Cporteous: /* Therapy */

{{review}}
[[Image:Star-gazing_boa-1ed.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''Typical "star-gazing" posture of a snake with neurological disease''' © RVC]]
Neurological disease is relatively common in snakes. Viral infections may present with neurological signs and hypothiaminosis is very common in [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]].
==Examination==
As with other problems of snakes, [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|history-taking]] is critical for diagnosis. Signalment information can help determine the cause since many neurological diseases are more prevalent in certain taxa. [[Category:Snake Husbandry|Husbandry information]] will help to determine whether the nervous system is involved specifically or secondarily. Clinical signs of neurological disease in snakes vary from very subtle to severe. There may be only a mild decrease in activity and a drop off in appetite. More obvious signs include disorientation, incoordination, loss of righting reflex, paresis, paralysis, head tremors, opisthotonous and convulsions.
==Diagnosis==
The aetiology of neurological disease can be suggested by signalment. Inclusion body disease (IBD) is almost always seen in Boidae. [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|Ophidian paramyxovirus]] (OPMV) occurs principally in [[Viperidae]]. Hypothiaminosis is common in fish-eating snakes such as [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]]. Disorientation and sluggishness may be attributed to a wide variety of causes but may be simply caused by an inappropriate environmental temperature. [[Snake Physical Examination|Physical examination]] may rule out cases of trauma. The use of diagnostic aids may identify the cause: [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|radiography]] may reveal fractures, [[Lizard and Snake Haematology|haematology]] may indicate an infectious cause, and serology may identify [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|OPMV]]. Response to thiamine is diagnostic for hypothiaminosis. However sometimes the aetiology is only found upon [[Snake Necropsy|necropsy]]. Perivascular cuffing in CNS issue may be associated with viral infections.
==Therapy==
Treatment of neurological disease involves both supportive care and aetiology related therapy. Some forms of neurological disease such as trauma may require up to one year of supportive care before snakes will begin to take prey spontaneously. Months of supportive care are often required for neurological deficits to restore but in many cases they may never heal. In some cases [[Lizard and Snake Euthanasia|euthanasia]] is probably the most humane act. Aetiology related therapy may not be possible in many cases.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Supportive Care]].

==Prevention==
Attention to diet and husbandry is usually the most important part of disease prevention.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Feeding]] '''and''' [[Snake Housing]].
==Causes of neurological disease==
There are many causes of neurological disease in snakes. Here’s a brief overview.

*'''Viral''' - Two viral diseases have been reported to cause neurological problems in snakes – [[Inclusion Body Disease]] and [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|OMPV]]. [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|OPMV]] is primarily associated with [[Snake Respiratory Disease|respiratory pathology]] but can be associated with CNS disease. The clinical significance of infection with western equine encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis is unknown.

*'''Bacterial''' - Bacterial infections, including Staphylococcus aureus and mycobacteria, have been reported to cause neurological disease and abscesses in the vertebral canal.

*'''Fungal''' - Cryptococcus neoformans has been associated with neurological disease. Diagnosis can be confirmed by serology or isolation from CSF.

*'''Parasitic''' - Protozoal neurological disease has been reported in snakes. Acanthmoebic encephalitis causes spasmodic opisthotonus and toxoplasmosis has been associated with meningoencephalitis.

*'''Nutritional''' - Thiamine deficiency is the most common nutritional cause of neurological disease in snakes. Snakes fed incorrectly prepared fish are at risk. Hypobiotinosis may develop from feeding raw egg whites containing avidin, which has anti-biotin activity.

*'''Trauma''' - Trauma neuropathies may occur after direct trauma to the head and vertebral column.

*'''Congenital''' - A caudal coiling problem has been seen in newborn [[Boa constrictor|boa constrictors]]. At necropsy there was a lymphocytic infiltrate in the perimysium of the epaxial muscles.

*'''Metabolic''' - [[Snake Gout|Gout]]-associated neurological disease may result from formation of tophi in CNS tissue.

*'''Toxicosis''' - Insecticide poisoning, most commonly organophosphate, has been reported in snakes and caused convulsions. Ivermectin overdose has been reported to cause neuromuscular weakness.

*'''Neoplasia''' - Reports of neoplasia of the nervous system of snakes are uncommon but leukaemias have been associated with neurological disease.

*'''Behavioural''' - Aggressive behaviour may be normal in some species such as [[Anaconda|anacondas]]. However, aggression in large [[Python|pythons]] has been associated with sudden changes in the [[Snake Diet|diet]]. Some large pythons also become conditioned to become aggressive by some feeding techniques.
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Vesicular Dermatitis

2010-05-18T14:30:57Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:0051_BLISTER_DISEASE_PYTHON_ed.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Blister disease on a boa constrictor''' © RVC]]
==Introduction==
Vesicular dermatitis (blister disease) is associated with inappropriate environment. An overly moist environment and poor ventilation, lead to sterile skin lesions that later become infected. If left untreated septicaemia may develop in only a few days in small snakes.
==Examination==
Natracine snakes are predisposed to developing vesicular dermatitis. History usually reveals inappropriately moist caging. Physical examination reveals numerous blisters. If the fluid is clear, it may be sterile. If not, there may have been progression of the disease to a secondary bacterial infection.
[[Image:0053_BLISTER_DISEASE_HISTO_-1_ed.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Histopathology of vesicular dermatitis''' © RVC]]
==Diagnostics==
Diagnosis of vesicular dermatitis is on history, physical examination and diagnostic aids. Initially microscopic examination of the fluid will show only a cellular exudate devoid of bacteria. Bacteriology initially may be sterile but later a variety of bacteria will be cultured. Sensitivity is essential especially if septicaemia is suspected.
==Therapy==
Moving to a well-ventilated cage with a dry substrate is the first step. This may often be curative in the early stage of the disease. Appropriate antibiotics topically and parenterally are extremely important either prophylactically or as a treatment for any secondary bacterial dermatitis.
==Prevention==
Prevention of vesicular dermatitis is similar to many diseases of reptiles - correct husbandry!

'''For more information on appropriate husbandry, see''' [[Snake Housing]].
[[Category:Snake_Skin_Diseases]]

Snake Mite Infestation

2010-05-18T14:29:16Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Mite.jpg|300px|thumb|right|© RVC]]
The snake mite (''Ophionyssus natricis'') is a common and significant ectoparasite of captive snakes. The feeding of the mites causes irritation and clinical disease. They are suspected of being a mechanical vector for [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|ophidian paramyxovirus]] and [[Inclusion Body Disease|inclusion body disease]]. Snake mites will also feed on other animals including humans but may not complete their [[Snake Mite Life Cycle|life cycle]].
==Examination==
The owner may note black parasites in the snake's water bowl, a white powder on the skin (the mite moulds and faeces) and long periods of soaking. Visual inspection of the [[Snake Skin|skin]] may reveal mites (the engorged female is the most obvious stage - see [[Snake Mite Life Cycle]]). The most common sites for mites are the gular and periocular regions, labial pits and commissures of the mouth. On the body, the ventrolateral aspect (scale rows one and two) is often colonised. Skin lesions range from very mild to severe. Mite feeding is irritating to the host and causes oedema and erythema. Clinical signs include [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]] often with retained spectacles, anorexia, weight loss and lethargy. Very heavy infestations may result in anaemia, dehydration and death.
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis is suspected from [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|history]] and [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]]. Microscopy of the mite is the definitive diagnosis. [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Biopsy]] and histopathology of skin lesions may be performed.
==Therapy==
Acariasis is highly contagious and can be very difficult to eliminate. There are various treatments but all must treat the environment as well as the host. Insecticides that have been advised include pyrethrins and pyrethroids, organophosphates and ivermectin. More recent treatments include the use of chitin disregulators such as lufenuron. The treatments are discussed in detail below.
==Prevention==
Acariasis is usually associated with poor hygiene or lack of [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine|quarantine]] for recent imports. Unfed mites can survive for prolonged periods of time under favourable environmental conditions so attention to [[Lizard and Snake Day to Day Practice|hygiene]] is importance. Regular cleaning, preferably steam cleaning, of the environment is a must. New reptiles should be [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine|quarantined]] and prophylactic treatments carried out. Prevention includes monitoring snake behaviour, close examination of the bottom and the water surface of water bowls. Also owners should check their own hands after [[Snake Handling and Restraint|handling the snake]]. Species that require humid surroundings (e.g., many tropical boids) are at high risk of mite infestation.
==Therapy of snake mites==
Treatment must be directed at the environment as well as the host and protocols should continue for at least six weeks. Environmental treatment must include the cage and all areas and objects within the room. All crevices and corners need to be treated as snake mites prefer darkness. Discard any cage objects that cannot be thoroughly cleaned. The substrate should be replaced twice a week during the parasitic treatment. Sprays can be used in the environment and on the animal.
*'''Water''' - Steam cleaning of the environment is extremely useful since all stages of mites are susceptible to both drowning and high temperatures. Infested snakes find some relief by soaking themselves. Water can therefore be used as a non-toxic adjunct treatment. Affected snakes, especially those that are severely compromised, can benefit from daily soaks of at least one hour.
*'''Desiccants''' - Mites are very susceptible to desiccation but their use may not help in their eradication. Mites travel up cage walls rather than staying in the substrate so they may not come into contact with the desiccant. Silica gel desiccants may detrimentally affect smaller snakes and could be carcinogenic in humans.
*'''Insecticides'''
**Organophosphates (OPs), including trichlorphon and dichlorvos, have been recommended for treating snake mite infestation. However, due to the possible toxicity for both humans and reptiles the use of these products should be discouraged. Pyrethrins and pyrethroids have been recommended as treatments for snake mites.
**'''Pyrethrins''' and '''pyrethroids''' have been used on the snake as well as the environment. Permethrin is a commonly available pyrethroid and can be made into a solution for spraying at 10 day intervals.
**'''Ivermectin''' is an effective acaricide by oral, parenteral or topical administration.
**'''Fipronil''' is an effective topical acaricide that may last several months with one application. The environment may also be treated. It appears to be safe and effective.

*'''Insect growth regulators''' - Lufenuron inhibits chitin synthesis and appears to be very safe and effective. For long-term treatment in most situations lufenuron is the treatment of choice.
[[Category:Snake Skin Diseases]]

Snake Lumps and Bumps

2010-05-18T14:27:44Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Abscess_lump.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''The majority of lumps in snakes are abscesses''' © RVC]]
==Examination==
Abnormal swellings are one of the commonest presentations in [[Snake|snakes]]. Visible or palpable masses may be either the presenting complaint or they m
# Element 1
# Element 2
# Element 3ay be found during the [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]]. [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|History]] will reveal that many lumps such as abscesses and [[Neoplasia - Pathology|neoplasia]] will be progressive while others will appear as if they developed overnight. [[Snake Physical Examination|Physical examination]] will give an indication of aetiology because of position. The differential diagnosis is in part based on the position of the lump in the body.

*For information on snake anatomy, [[:Category:Snake Anatomy|see here]].

[[Image:Main_screen.jpg|200px|thumb|right|© RVC]]
==Diagnosis==
The majority of lumps are abscesses, but not all are! Radiology may define the aetiology because of the radiographic appearance. Additionally, haematology and biochemistry, fine needle aspiration, contrast radiography, ultrasonography, endoscopy, biopsy and faecal examination may be used. Culture and sensitivity are especially important.

Find out more about snake:

*[[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Specimen collection and evaluation]]

*[[Lizard and Snake Haemotology|Haematology]]

*[[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|Biochemistry]]

*[[Lizard and Snake Imaging|Imaging]]

[[Image:Snake_op2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|© RVC]]
==Therapy==
Treatment is very varied and dependent on the aetiology but frequently involves [[Lizard and Snake Surgery|surgery]] to investigate and remove the masses. Treatment of abscesses (one of the most common dermatological problems) involves surgical removal and systemic antibiotics based upon a culture and sensitivity.

*For more information on snake surgery, [[Lizard and Snake Surgery|see here]].

==Prevention==
A preventive medicine program, including [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine|quarantine]], holds the key to a healthy reptile collection. Good [[:Category: Snake Husbandry|husbandry]] practices produce animals that are not stressed and conditions not conducive to [[:Category:Snake Diseases|disease]]. [[Lizard and Snake Day to Day Practice|Hygienic conditions]] decrease contamination of abscess-forming [[Bacteria|bacteria]]. Prophylactic treatments decrease parasite numbers before they become a problem (see [[Snake Mites|snake mites]]). Veterinary involvement allows treatment to be instigated at an early stage.
[[Image:Python_3rds.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''The body can be divided into thirds to aid in a differential diagnosis''' © RVC]]
==Differential diagnosis of lumps==
The differential diagnosis will depend on the position of the lump in the body so knowledge of the position of organs is important. For more information on snake anatomy, [[:Category:Snake Anatomy|see here]]. Abscesses may occur anywhere in the body and must be included in any differential diagnosis. [[Neoplasia - Pathology|Neoplasia]] is similar. Some causes:
*In the '''cranial third''' of the snake - ingested foreign bodies, cardiomyopathies or pericardial effusions, visceral gout and goitre (see snake [[Snake Respiratory System|respiratory system]] and [[Snake Cardiovascular System|cardiovascular system]]).
*In the '''middle third''' - ingested foreign bodies, intestinal intussusception, visceral gout, cholecystomegaly due to bile duct obstruction or coccidiosis, ripe or atretic follicles, inflammation of any organs including gastritis caused by Cryptosporidium and Monocercomonas, colitis due to Entamoeba, omphalitis and steatitis (see snake [[Snake Digestive System|digestive system]].
*In the '''caudal third''' - ingested foreign bodies, intestinal intussusception, uric acid colonoliths, renal and visceral gout. Impacted or abscessed anal glands, or [[Hemipenes|hemipenes]] in a male snake may cause masses at the base of the tail. See [[Lizard and Snake Renal Disease|renal disease]], [[Lizard and Snake Excretion|excretion]] and [[Lizard and Snake Dystocia|dystocia]].
[[Category:Snake_Skin_Diseases]]

Snake Supportive Care

2010-05-18T14:25:56Z

Cporteous:

{{unfinished}}
[[Image:Prep_cropped.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''Supportive care includes environment, nutrition and fluids''' © RVC]]
Supportive care is an important consideration in treating snakes during illness and emergencies and may be necessary as well as aetiology-specific therapy.
==Nutrition==
An important part of supportive care is the provision of adequate nutrition. This involves determination of the energy requirements and the method of administration. Protein should also be supplied at 4-5 g per 100 kcal. Once the patient is rehydrated nutritional support can be initiated. It is generally recommended that nutritional support be provided to a patient that has lost 10% bodyweight acutely or 20% chronically. Food can be in the form of whole prey or commercial nutritional preparations. Cat and dog foods are not recommended due to the high content of non-animal protein.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Feeding]] '''and''' [[Snake Diet]].
===Determination of requirements===
The basal metabolic rate for snakes kept at 30°C can be calculated from bodyweight using the following formula: Kcal/day = 32kg 0.76. Energy requirements increase above the basal metabolic rate due to activity, reproduction, growth and sickness. The basal metabolic rate is multiplied by a factor to reflect these energy requirements. For a convalescing snake (stressed, sick, burnt etc) this is about 2. Convalescing snakes can be fed whole prey (chicks and rodents) that can be blenderised or commercial preparations (Vetark’s Critical Care Formulation and Hill’s AD). These can be mixed with fluid such as lactated ringers or saline.

===Method of administration===
It is obviously worthwhile trying to coax the snake to take the prey that is offered: try gently slapping the prey against the side of the snake’s head. If this fails, nutritional support by involuntary means will be necessary. Snakes can be force-fed with either whole prey or commercial nutritional support preparations. Whole prey can be lubricated and passed nose first through a mouth pried open. The prey is then milked down the oesophagus. This may be stressful. Alternatively, blenderised whole prey or commercial preparations can fed through an orogastric tube. Both procedures can be done under light sedation.

==Fluid==
Dehydration is common in sick snakes so it is important that fluid therapy forms part of supportive care. Rehydration is imperative prior to nutritional support or drug therapy. Methods include water baths, oral fluid (using an orogastric tube) and parenteral fluid. Water baths three times daily are a simple way of helping rehydration. All fluids should be warmed to within the [[Preferred optimum temperature zone|POTZ]] prior to their use.
===Oral fluids===
Fluids can be supplied to snakes by an orogastric tube (e.g. a French catheter). The mouth is opened and a mouth gag applied. Try a cleaned old radiographic film with a hole cut in the centre. The snake is held vertically. The lubricated tube can be passed through the hole of the radiographic film into the oesophagus and the snake’s mouth will not be damaged. The tube is then passed to the level of the stomach. The stomach volume is approximately 2% bodyweight so do not exceed this when administering fluids by stomach tube.
===Subcutaneous administration===
SC fluids are useful in mild to moderately dehydrated patients and those that will not allow oral access. Small volumes of fluids can be given. The best location is the lateral sinuses, which are located longitudinally between the epaxial muscles dorsally and the ribs ventrally.
===Intracoelomic administration===
Fluids should be given in the lower one-fourth of the body cranial to the cloaca (at least 3-4 ventral scales). The snake is held in dorsal recumbency with the needle directed cranially at a 45 degree angle from the abdomen off the midline (to avoid the central abdominal vein). Deep penetration should be avoided. If blood is noted on aspiration, withdraw the needle and try another site.
===Intravenous administration===
Severe dehydration requires fluids to be given IV. Jugulars and intracardiac catheters can be used. In an anaesthetised snake the area cranial to the heart is surgically prepared. An incision of about 5 cms (two to three scutes long) is made at the margin of the scutes and the lateral body scales on the right (the right jugular is usually larger than the left). The fascia is bluntly dissected to reveal the jugular vein, which is very superficial and runs medial and parallel to the free margin of the ribs. An appropriately sized catheter is then inserted in the direction of the heart. The catheter hub is then incorporated into the skin closure and an injection port is affixed. Antimicrobial ointment should be placed over the incision and a clean dressing placed around the snake's body. The catheter can be removed by simply removing the skin sutures and pulling it out. It is not necessary to open the incision or ligate the jugular vein. Make sure you apply pressure to the site for a few minutes!

===Amount and concentration===
Maintenance fluid can be given at 2.5% bodyweight/day, preferably PO but parenteral if necessary. For severe dehydration up to 40ml/kg/day can be administered. Fluid balance in snakes is poorly understood but snakes may have a lower plasma osmotic pressure than mammals. A slightly diluted mammalian rehydration fluid therefore appears appropriate. An appropriate fluid is a 50:50 combination of dextrose 5% in water and a nonlactated, isotonic multiple electrolyte solution.

==Environment==
Reptiles have metabolic rates of about one tenth that of mammals or birds so thermal support is essential for ill snakes. At all times maintain hospitalised snakes within their POTZ with a temperature gradient and, if critical, maintain them at the upper end of their [[Preferred optimum temperature zone|POTZ]]. Snakes also need to have a hiding place and attention should be paid to humidity control. To reduce stress snakes should only be handled at feeding times. A veterinary hospital with reptiles as in-patients requires fully-functioning vivaria.

==Medication==
The principles of medication in snakes are similar to domestic animals. Always ensure adequate hydration prior to giving any medication.
===Antibiotics===
Microscopy, culture and sensitivity are necessary to establish aetiology and the resistance/sensitivity of antibiotics prior to therapy. The use of antibiotics has changed dramatically with the availability of fluoroquinolones. These antibiotics are relatively non-toxic in the animal, are bacteriocidal and presently a low level of resistance is seen. Other antibiotics such as amikacin may be efficacious but have problems with safety. The use of chloramphenicol should be discouraged because of its use in human medicine. Dosages of antibiotics vary between taxa.

===Analgesics===
Perception of pain in reptiles may not be as obvious as in mammals. This does not mean that analgesia should be ignored. Analgesics commonly used in veterinary medicine include the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (carprofen) and opioid agonist-antagonists (buprenorphine and butorphanol).
===Antiparasitics===
The presence of parasites is often not a life-threatening situation but parasitism is part of the maladaption of wild-caught snakes in captivity. Parasites should be treated when positive faecal examinations are observed. Occult infestations occur and it is worthwhile using antiparasitics as a prophylaxis. Commonly used anthelmintics include benzimidazoles, ivermectin and praziquantel. If direct smears of faeces indicate excessive protozoal numbers (more than 10-20 on a high powered field) metronidazole can be used as an antiprotozoal.
===Miscellaneous===
Most drugs have not had pharmacokinetic studies done in reptiles. Their use is generally bases on experience and their use in other animals. If you think that you have found a useful treatment inform others! Publish it in the British Veterinary Zoological Society newsletter or the Bulletin of the Association of Amphibian and Reptilian Veterinarians.
[[Category:Snake_Therapeutics]]

Snake Injection

2010-05-18T14:17:57Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Good_injection_photo.jpg|350px|thumb|right|'''Surgical preparation of the skin and adequate restraint are important whatever the method''' © RVC]]
==How to inject snakes==
Parenteral methods of treatment include intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous and intracoelomic. Ensure that the snake is adequately hydrated prior to the injection. Give the injections between the [[Snake Skin|scales]] and use a small gauge needle.
* Subcutaneous: the site for subcutaneous injections is the skin lateral to the ribs. SC injections are the route of choice in small snakes.
** '''For more information, see''' [[Snake Skin|snake skin]].
* Intramuscular: the site for intramuscular injections is the musculature lateral to the spinous processes.
** '''For more information, see''' [[Snake Musculoskeletal System|snake musculoskeletal system]].
* Intravenous: the site for intravenous injections is the ventral tail vein.
* Intracoelomic: snakes do not have extendible cavities like lizards. Only small amounts can be given ICo and should not be given if space-occupying lesions are present.
[[Category:Snake_Therapeutics]]

Snake Anaesthesia - Stages

2010-05-18T14:14:52Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
'''Find out more information on''' [[Lizard and Snake Anaesthesia]].

'''Find out more information on''' [[Lizard and Snake Surgery]].
==Stage 1==
* Slow movements
* Muscles not relaxed
* Positive righting reflex
* Tongue withdrawal reflex present
* Painful stimuli are registered
* Slithering movements present
==Stage 2==
* Few spontaneous movements
* Light muscle relaxation
* Poor righting reflex
* Tongue withdrawal reflex decreased
* Responses to painful stimuli reduced or absent
* Slithering movements almost abolished
==Stage 3 - Surgical plane of anaesthesia==
* No movements
* Marked to complete muscle relaxation
* No tongue withdrawal reflex
* No responses to painful stimuli
* No slithering movements

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
[[Category:Snake_Procedures]]

Snake Dysecdysis

2010-05-18T14:11:06Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Boa_with_dys_ed.jpg|350px|thumb|right|'''Dysecdysis in Boa constrictor''' © RVC]]
==Introduction to shedding==
The entire [[Snake Skin|skin]] is shed on a regular basis, often two to four times a year. The frequency depends upon the rapidity of growth, age, nutritional state, size and environmental factors.

'''Find out more about''' [[Snake Skin]] '''and''' [[:Category:Snake Skin Diseases|Snake Skin Diseases]].
==The process==
Prior to [[Snake Shedding|shedding]] there is an inactive period of about a week during which the spectacle becomes opaque. Fissure-like clefts form between the inner dividing epidermal cells and the older cells as these migrate outward. A new three layered epidermis is formed under the old outer layers. Lymph diffuses into the area between the old and new skin and enzymes form a cleavage zone. Air is present between the two layers and interferes with [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|ultrasonography]]. [[Ecdysis]] then occurs as the snake rubs itself on objects in the environment to loosen the old skin. Most snakes shed their skin in one piece, except for the giant snakes that may tear their moult. The process takes in total about two weeks.
==Spectacle==
Prior to shedding the [[Spectacle|spectacle]] becomes opaque and bluish-white from its normally transparent state. This results from a separation of the spectacle layers by a lymph-like fluid. In the wild this may render the snake partially blind and vulnerable to attack. During the actual shedding the spectacle returns to the transparent state. It is shed with the rest of the skin during [[Ecdysis|ecdysis]].
==Dysecdysis==
Dysecdysis is improper or incomplete shedding. It may occur for various reasons including disease ([[Snake Mites|mites]], malnutrition, dermatitis or trauma) and problems of captivity (incorrect humidity, incorrect handling). Sometimes the spectacle fails to shed and remains as an opaque cover over the eye, restricting vision.

'''Find out more information about helping to prevent dysecdysis using [[Snake Housing|good husbandry]].
[[Category:Snake_Skin_Diseases]]

Snake Subspectacular Abscess

2010-05-18T13:49:57Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
==Subspectacular abscess==
Infections associated with the [[Snake Eye|eye]] are commonly seen in snakes. The [[Spectacle|spectacle]], the subspectacular space and the globe may be involved. Infections of the subspectacular space usually occur from ascending infections of the oral cavity. Less commonly they occur from a puncture through the spectacle or a local periocular infection.

*'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Eye]].

==Examination==
Examination of the eye reveals an accumulation of purulent and/or caseous material in the subspectacular space. Bilateral subspectacular abscesses occur and investigation of the oral cavity may reveal a stomatitis adjacent to the openings of the nasolacrimal ducts.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis of a subspectacular abscess is on [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] and bacteriology. Samples of the subspectacular fluid and any oral lesions are submitted for microscopy, culture and sensitivity. Direct microscopic examination of the material may reveal flagellates. Subspectacular abscesses are often an extension of [[Snake Respiratory System|upper alimentary tract]] or systemic disease so collection of blood for [[Lizard and Snake Haematology|haematology]] and [[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|biochemistry]] is advisable.
==Therapy==
The treatment of subspectacular abscesses requires a multi-pronged approach. Surgical removal of a 30° wedge of the ventral spectacle allows drainage and flushing. Culture and sensitivity indicate the use of appropriate topical and systemic antibiotics. Treatment of other lesions such as [[Lizard and Snake Ulcerative Stomatitis|stomatitis]] needs to be aggressive.

'''For more information, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Surgery]].
==Prevention==
Poor husbandry such as unhygienic conditions results in immunosuppression and resultant disease. Thorough evaluation and correction of inappropriate husbandry is essential for healthy snakes.

'''For more information on appropriate husbandry practices, see''' [[Snake Housing]].
[[Category:Snake_Spectacular_Diseases]]

Snake Retained Spectacles

2010-05-18T13:43:01Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
The most common ocular problem of snakes is retained spectacles and is usually associated with [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]]. Temporary blindness can result from the serial retention of spectacles and permanent blindness may result from secondary infection.
==Examination==
Disease of the [[Spectacle|spectacle]] needs to be differentiated from the normal changes that occur prior to [[Ecdysis|ecdysis]]. Here the [[Spectacle|spectacle]] becomes opaque then clear immediately prior to shedding. Retained spectacles result in a raised hardened mass over the spectacle.

'''For more information on shedding, see''' [[Snake Skin]].
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis of retained spectacles is based on physical examination. Husbandry evaluation may indicate poor environmental conditions, specifically inappropriate humidity.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
==Therapy==
The cornea underlying the [[Spectacle|spectacle]] is very delicate and attempts to wrench off the retained spectacle with forceps have a high success rate of damaging the cornea. Prior to any attempts at removing the spectacle the snake should be kept in a high humidity environment for a minimum of 24 hours. During this time artificial tears should be applied several times. This may soften the retained spectacle and allow their removal. Soaking prior to manipulation may further soften the [[Spectacle|spectacles]]. The next step is using a moistened cotton-tipped applicator to gently rub from the lateral edges of the retained spectacle inwards. In the majority of cases it will be [[Ecdysis|shed]]. If not the procedure of softening can be repeated. In some cases it is necessary to wait until the next [[Ecdysis|shed]].
==Prevention==
Prevention of retained spectacles is related to general skin health. Poor husbandry, especially low humidity, leads to [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]].
==Dealing with retained spectacles==
The treatment of retained spectacles should be specifically aimed at relieving the ocular problem but also directed towards any dysecdysis. The principles of treatment for [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]] are the same whether or not retained spectacles are present.
[[Category:Snake_Spectacular_Diseases]]

Snake Retained Spectacles

2010-05-18T13:42:22Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
The most common ocular problem of snakes is retained spectacles and is usually associated with [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]]. Temporary blindness can result from the serial retention of spectacles and permanent blindness may result from secondary infection.
==Examination==
Disease of the [[Spectacle|spectacle]] needs to be differentiated from the normal changes that occur prior to [[Ecdysis|ecdysis]]. Here the [[Spectacle|spectacle]] becomes opaque then clear immediately prior to shedding. Retained spectacles result in a raised hardened mass over the spectacle.

'''For more information on shedding, see''' [[Snake Skin]].
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis of retained spectacles is based on physical examination. Husbandry evaluation may indicate poor environmental conditions, specifically inappropriate humidity.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
==Therapy==
The cornea underlying the [[Spectacle|spectacle]] is very delicate and attempts to wrench off the retained spectacle with forceps have a high success rate of damaging the cornea. Prior to any attempts at removing the spectacle the snake should be kept in a high humidity environment for a minimum of 24 hours. During this time artificial tears should be applied several times. This may soften the retained spectacle and allow their removal. Soaking prior to manipulation may further soften the [[Spectacles|spectacles]]. The next step is using a moistened cotton-tipped applicator to gently rub from the lateral edges of the retained spectacle inwards. In the majority of cases it will be [[Ecdysis|shed]]. If not the procedure of softening can be repeated. In some cases it is necessary to wait until the next [[Ecdysis|shed]].
==Prevention==
Prevention of retained spectacles is related to general skin health. Poor husbandry, especially low humidity, leads to [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]].
==Dealing with retained spectacles==
The treatment of retained spectacles should be specifically aimed at relieving the ocular problem but also directed towards any dysecdysis. The principles of treatment for [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]] are the same whether or not retained spectacles are present.
[[Category:Snake_Spectacular_Diseases]]

Snake Bullous Spectaculopathy

2010-05-18T13:33:01Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
A bullous spectaculopathy is an accumulation of clear fluid in the subspectacular space that presents as a bulging of the [[Spectacle|spectacle]]. It is a common problem caused by the blockage of the nasolacrimal duct, which is often secondary to infectious stomatitis. In newborn snakes it may be caused by a congenital agenesis of the lacrimal duct.

*'''For more information on the eye, see''' [[Snake Eye]].
==Examination==
Bulging [[Spectacle|spectacles]] are a common presenting complaint in snakes. The cause may either be a subspectacular infection or impaired tear drainage. On [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]], the subspectacular fluid tends to be clear when there is impaired drainage. If the fluid is not clear, an infectious process should be suspected. The vascularity is not usually evident in the normal [[Spectacle|spectacle]]. When there is distension of the [[Spectacle|spectacle]] the vessels may become engorged and easily visualised with an ophthalmoscope.

*'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].

==Diagnosis==
A bulging spectacle can be investigated by the insertion of a small gauge needle through the lateral canthus into the subspectacular space. Paracentesis of some fluid is followed by the injection of a small amount of fluorescein dye. The mouth is then examined with the aid of an ultraviolet light. In cases of bullous spectaculopathies there will be no fluorescence in the mouth. The tear sample can be submitted for microscopy, culture and sensitivity.
==Therapy==
Several treatments have been advised for bullous spectaculopathies. Paracentesis gives a temporary solution and the condition sometimes resolves with treatment of any infectious stomatitis. The spectacular distension usually returns though. Most cases will resolve with the excision of a 30° wedge of the ventral spectacle, which allows drainage, in combination with treatment of the inciting stomatitis. A surgical fistula between the subspectacular space and the mouth (conjunctivoralostomy) has also been recommended as a treatment. The prognosis for complete resolution of individual cases can be difficult to assess and the loss of vision due to an opaque spectacle is a common sequelae.
==Therapy - Conjunctivoralostomy==
This procedure involves incising the spectacle and passing an 18g needle from the subspectacular space into the mouth. Fine silastic tubing is then threaded through the needle. This is left in position for drainage for one month. Any oral lesions are vigorously treated.
==Prevention==
Bullous spectaculopathies are often secondary to upper alimentary tract disease. This is usually associated with poor husbandry such as unhygienic conditions and keeping snakes outside their [[POTZ]]. Prevention therefore comes from [[:Category:Snake Husbandry|good husbandry practices]].[[Category:Snake Spectacular Diseases]]

Inclusion Body Disease

2010-05-18T13:00:16Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Boid_inclusion_body_dis._rbc_inclusions.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Inclusion bodies''' © RVC]]
==Species predisposition==
Inclusion body disease is seen in [[Boidae]]. Previously the most commonly affected species was [[Burmese Python|Burmese pythons]] but the disease is now most often seen in [[Boa constrictor|Boa constrictors]]. It appears to be relatively uncommon in [[Royal Python|royal pythons]] and has not been reported in [[Rosy boa|Rosy boas]]. The occurrence of the disease in non-boids cannot be ruled out since typical signs and lesions have been reported in a [[Kingsnake|kingsnake]]. IBD is primarily seen in adult snakes, however all age groups should be considered susceptible. Young snakes tend to develop an acute infection with a mortality rate approaching 100%. Infected adult snakes often experience the disease in a more chronic and debilitating form.

Inclusion body disease (IBD) is a worldwide disease of [[Boidae]] and is named for the characteristic intracytoplasmic inclusions seen in the cells of affected snakes. The causative agent of has not been identified although a Retroviridae-like virus has been incriminated.
==Examination==
[[Image:CNS_IBD.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''CNS derangement in [[Burmese Python|Burmese python]]''' © RVC]]
Classically [[Pythoninae|pythons]] developed acute CNS signs and boas presented with regurgitation. In fact clinical signs are very variable among species and individuals and may related to secondary bacterial infections in immunosuppressed boids.

Common clinical signs include the following:

* Lethargy
* Anorexia
* Weight loss
* Lack of weight gain
* Pale oral mucous membranes
* CNS problems
** Incoordination
** Disorientation
** Loss of righting reflexes
** Head tremors
** Opisthotonous
** Paresis to paralysis
* Regurgitation (partially digested possibly mucous-covered food food about one week post-prandial), [[Lizard and Snake Ulcerative Stomatitis|stomatitis]], diarrhoea, pneumonia, dermatitis and neoplasia.

'''For more information on physical examination of a snake, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
==Diagnosis==
[[Image:BOID_INCLUS._BODY_DIS._GASTRIC_MUCOSAL_INCLUSIONS.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Gastric mucosal inclusions'''© RVC]]
Since IBD presents with a variety of signs, any sick boid without an obvious aetiology should be suspected of IBD. Especially consider those with regurgitation, CNS signs and bacterial infections. A thorough [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] may rule our other causes. Currently there is no serologic assay available for determining exposure. Diagnostic aids include the following:
===Blood===
Blood examination may be helpful. [[Lizard and Snake Haematology|Haematology]] may show a leukocytosis with a lymphocytosis. The white blood cell count is variable, ranging from normal (immune system depression) to as high as 100,000. The leucocytes may show toxic changes. Smears are observed for the presence of inclusion bodies. Typically 1% of cells have the inclusion bodies so it is worthwhile doing a buffy coat smear. Biochemistry may show changes in liver parameters.
[[Image:0087-D_SnN-011-D.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Note thick mucus filling the lung''' © Dr. Oscar Razioli]]
===Biopsy and histology===
Tissues for biopsy include oesophageal tonsils, liver, kidney and gastric mucosa. The presence of cytoplasmic inclusion bodies on histology is diagnostic for IBD. Sometimes very few inclusions are seen so absence of inclusions does not rule out the disease. For antemortem diagnosis biopsies may have be repeated several times to find inclusions. Characteristic histopathology may be seen in several tissues.

* '''For more infomation on taking samples from snakes, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].

===Necropsy===
[[Snake Necropsy|Necropsy]] shows changes associated with secondary bacterial infections. On histology, multiple tissues have been reported to contain cells with inclusions.

* '''For more information on postmortem of a snake, see''' [[Snake Necropsy]].
==Therapy==
There is no known treatment. Euthanasia is recommended.

* '''For more information on euthanasia, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Euthanasia]].
==Prevention==
A sound preventive medicine programme is the protection. All new snakes should be quarantined for a minimum of 90 days before introduction to others. For larger collections a [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine|quarantine]] of 6 months may be more appropriate. The exact route of transmission is unknown so [[Lizard and Snake Day to Day Practice|hygiene]] and [[Snake Mites|mite]] control are essential. Finally all infected snakes should be [[Lizard and Snake Euthanasia|euthanased]].

'''For more information on preventative veterinary medicine, see:
*[[Lizard and Snake Quarantine]], and
*[[Lizard and Snake Day to Day Practice]]
[[Category:Snake Viral Diseases]]

Snake Cryptosporidiosis

2010-05-18T11:45:09Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Crypto_lump_copy.jpg|100px|thumb|right|'''Mid-body swelling''' © RVC]]
[[Cryptosporidium|''Cryptosporidium'']] spp. are [[Protozoa|protozoa]] of the phylum Apicomplexa and commonly cause gastrointestinal disease in animals. ''Cryptosporidium serpentis'' infection in snakes causes gastric hypertrophy and consequent clinical signs. The mode of transmission is oral-faecal. The disease can either be subclinical with intermittent shedding or clinical with gastrointestinal disease. Non-ophidian reptiles may also be carriers.
==Examination==
Regurgitation of mucus covered prey three to four days after eating, weight loss and a firm mid-body swelling are the usual clinical signs. Regurgitation may be episodic.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
==Diagnosis==
Cryptosporidiosis can be insidious and go unnoticed until pathologic changes are advanced. It is diagnosed by several methods, but often established on [[Snake Necropsy|necropsy]].

* Cryptosporidial oocysts (about 6 µm diameter) can be detected in faeces. Modified acid fast staining helps to detect them. Due to inconsistent shedding, four consecutive negative faecal tests are necessary to establish a ''Cryptosporidium''-free snake.

* Samples for microscopy may be collected by stomach wash. ''Cryptosporidia'' may sometimes be seen in the mucous of regurgitated food.

* [[ELISA testing|ELISA]] detectable ''Cryptosporidium''-specific antibody titres are available but are not necessarily specific for ''C. serpentis''.

* Histopathology can establish a positive diagnosis from endoscopic biopsy or surgical biopsy. Negative histology does not rule out cryptosporidiosis because of the non-uniform distribution of ''Cryptosporidia''.

'''For more information on diagnostics, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].
[[Image:Clinical_cryptosporidiosis_snow_corn_snake.jpg|300px|thumb|right|© RVC]]

==Therapy==
Treatment can be supportive but death usually occurs from a few months to a year after the clinical signs are first noticed. Treatment with immunoglobulins may be helpful. [[Lizard and Snake Euthanasia|Euthanasia]] may be the most realistic option. If not, strict [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine|quarantine]] of any infected snakes is very important to stop the spread of infection. Disinfection of contaminated areas can be carried out with 5% ammonia or 10% formalin. Hypochlorite at 3% is not effective.

'''For more vivarium disinfectants, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Day to Day Practice]].
==Prevention==
Good husbandry practices will always be invaluable as part of a preventive medicine program. Limiting stressors and maintaining good hygiene will decrease the spread of cryptosporidiosis. Snakes should not be housed with other reptiles since they are susceptible to the excreted oocysts from carriers. ''Cryptosporidium'' spp. that infect mammals do not infect snakes and it appears that ''Cryptosporidium serpentis'' is not adapted to poikilotherms and therefore not contagious to mammals.

'''For more information on good husbandry, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry|Snake Husbandry]].
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Cryptosporidiosis

2010-05-18T11:44:16Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Crypto_lump_copy.jpg|150px|thumb|right|'''Mid-body swelling''' © RVC]]
[[Cryptosporidium|''Cryptosporidium'']] spp. are [[Protozoa|protozoa]] of the phylum Apicomplexa and commonly cause gastrointestinal disease in animals. ''Cryptosporidium serpentis'' infection in snakes causes gastric hypertrophy and consequent clinical signs. The mode of transmission is oral-faecal. The disease can either be subclinical with intermittent shedding or clinical with gastrointestinal disease. Non-ophidian reptiles may also be carriers.
==Examination==
Regurgitation of mucus covered prey three to four days after eating, weight loss and a firm mid-body swelling are the usual clinical signs. Regurgitation may be episodic.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
==Diagnosis==
Cryptosporidiosis can be insidious and go unnoticed until pathologic changes are advanced. It is diagnosed by several methods, but often established on [[Snake Necropsy|necropsy]].

* Cryptosporidial oocysts (about 6 µm diameter) can be detected in faeces. Modified acid fast staining helps to detect them. Due to inconsistent shedding, four consecutive negative faecal tests are necessary to establish a ''Cryptosporidium''-free snake.

* Samples for microscopy may be collected by stomach wash. ''Cryptosporidia'' may sometimes be seen in the mucous of regurgitated food.

* [[ELISA testing|ELISA]] detectable ''Cryptosporidium''-specific antibody titres are available but are not necessarily specific for ''C. serpentis''.

* Histopathology can establish a positive diagnosis from endoscopic biopsy or surgical biopsy. Negative histology does not rule out cryptosporidiosis because of the non-uniform distribution of ''Cryptosporidia''.

'''For more information on diagnostics, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].
[[Image:Clinical_cryptosporidiosis_snow_corn_snake.jpg|300px|thumb|right|© RVC]]

==Therapy==
Treatment can be supportive but death usually occurs from a few months to a year after the clinical signs are first noticed. Treatment with immunoglobulins may be helpful. [[Lizard and Snake Euthanasia|Euthanasia]] may be the most realistic option. If not, strict [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine|quarantine]] of any infected snakes is very important to stop the spread of infection. Disinfection of contaminated areas can be carried out with 5% ammonia or 10% formalin. Hypochlorite at 3% is not effective.

'''For more vivarium disinfectants, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Day to Day Practice]].
==Prevention==
Good husbandry practices will always be invaluable as part of a preventive medicine program. Limiting stressors and maintaining good hygiene will decrease the spread of cryptosporidiosis. Snakes should not be housed with other reptiles since they are susceptible to the excreted oocysts from carriers. ''Cryptosporidium'' spp. that infect mammals do not infect snakes and it appears that ''Cryptosporidium serpentis'' is not adapted to poikilotherms and therefore not contagious to mammals.

'''For more information on good husbandry, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry|Snake Husbandry]].
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Cryptosporidiosis

2010-05-18T11:43:47Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Crypto_lump_copy.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Mid-body swelling''' © RVC]]
[[Cryptosporidium|''Cryptosporidium'']] spp. are [[Protozoa|protozoa]] of the phylum Apicomplexa and commonly cause gastrointestinal disease in animals. ''Cryptosporidium serpentis'' infection in snakes causes gastric hypertrophy and consequent clinical signs. The mode of transmission is oral-faecal. The disease can either be subclinical with intermittent shedding or clinical with gastrointestinal disease. Non-ophidian reptiles may also be carriers.
==Examination==
Regurgitation of mucus covered prey three to four days after eating, weight loss and a firm mid-body swelling are the usual clinical signs. Regurgitation may be episodic.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
==Diagnosis==
Cryptosporidiosis can be insidious and go unnoticed until pathologic changes are advanced. It is diagnosed by several methods, but often established on [[Snake Necropsy|necropsy]].

* Cryptosporidial oocysts (about 6 µm diameter) can be detected in faeces. Modified acid fast staining helps to detect them. Due to inconsistent shedding, four consecutive negative faecal tests are necessary to establish a ''Cryptosporidium''-free snake.

* Samples for microscopy may be collected by stomach wash. ''Cryptosporidia'' may sometimes be seen in the mucous of regurgitated food.

* [[ELISA testing|ELISA]] detectable ''Cryptosporidium''-specific antibody titres are available but are not necessarily specific for ''C. serpentis''.

* Histopathology can establish a positive diagnosis from endoscopic biopsy or surgical biopsy. Negative histology does not rule out cryptosporidiosis because of the non-uniform distribution of ''Cryptosporidia''.

'''For more information on diagnostics, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].
[[Image:Clinical_cryptosporidiosis_snow_corn_snake.jpg|300px|thumb|right|© RVC]]

==Therapy==
Treatment can be supportive but death usually occurs from a few months to a year after the clinical signs are first noticed. Treatment with immunoglobulins may be helpful. [[Lizard and Snake Euthanasia|Euthanasia]] may be the most realistic option. If not, strict [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine|quarantine]] of any infected snakes is very important to stop the spread of infection. Disinfection of contaminated areas can be carried out with 5% ammonia or 10% formalin. Hypochlorite at 3% is not effective.

'''For more vivarium disinfectants, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Day to Day Practice]].
==Prevention==
Good husbandry practices will always be invaluable as part of a preventive medicine program. Limiting stressors and maintaining good hygiene will decrease the spread of cryptosporidiosis. Snakes should not be housed with other reptiles since they are susceptible to the excreted oocysts from carriers. ''Cryptosporidium'' spp. that infect mammals do not infect snakes and it appears that ''Cryptosporidium serpentis'' is not adapted to poikilotherms and therefore not contagious to mammals.

'''For more information on good husbandry, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry|Snake Husbandry]].
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Gout

2010-05-18T11:39:08Z

Cporteous:

{{unfinished}}
[[Image:Bump2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Biopsy of this swelling revealed renal gout''' © RVC]]
Gout is a metabolic disease where there is a precipitation of urate crystals in tissue. There are two types of gout in animals.
*In primary gout there is an overproduction of [[Uric acid|uric acid]] related to an innate metabolic problem.
*In secondary gout, acquired disease interferes with the [[Uric acid|uric acid]] metabolism. Terrestrial reptiles are predisposed to secondary gout since nitrogenous waste is excreted as [[Uric acid|uric acid]].

In snakes kidney disease often leads to the development of the [[Visceral gout|visceral form of gout]].

'''For more information on excretion, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Excretion]].
==Examination==
History may show poor husbandry including limited access to water. Snakes often present as anorexic and lethargic. Often if kidney disease is involved there is a palpable lump in the caudal third.

'''Fore more information on differential diagnosis of lumps in the body, see''' [[Snake Lumps and Bumps]].
[[Image:Necropsy_copy.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Tophi in renal tissue''' - © RVC]]
==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis of gout may be suspected on history and physical examination. [[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|Biochemistry]] may indicate a hyperuricaemia. Sometimes [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|radiography]] is useful if calcium is deposited with the urate crystals. Biopsy of any lumps may be useful. A definite diagnosis is the demonstration of tophi in diseased tissue.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].

'''For more information on biopsy collection, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].
[[Image:Renal_gout_python_regius.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Tophi in diseased tissue''' © RVC]]
==Therapy==
Supportive treatment especially aimed at rehydration may be useful but gout carries a poor prognosis. Previously allopurinol (a xanthine oxidase inhibitor that decreases formation of uric acid) has been recommended as a treatment of hyperuricaemia in reptiles and birds but in fact appears to be of little use. Other drugs such as uricases (enzymes involved in the degradation of uric acid to allantoin) may be more useful.
==Prevention==
Any bouts of dehydration will predispose to the development of gout so good husbandry is important in prevention. Veterinarians should ensure adequate hydration of reptiles prior to any drug therapy especially the use of nephrotoxic drugs.

'''For more information on good husbandry practices, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry| Snake Husbandry]].
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Respiratory Disease

2010-05-18T11:35:05Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Dyspnoeic_royal_python_ed.jpg|350px|thumb|right|'''Open-mouthed breathing in snakes is a sign of serious pulmonary disease''' © RVC]]
==Respiratory disease==
Respiratory disease is common in snakes and respiratory signs are common presenting complaints. Pneumonia has a multifactorial aetiology including poor husbandry and infectious agents, usually Gram-negative bacteria.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Respiratory System]] '''and''' [[Lizard and Snake Respiration|Snake Respiration]].
==Examination==
History usually reveals inappropriate husbandry practices. Snakes with pneumonia will most often be presented when the disease is quite advanced. On [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] dyspnoea may be seen. The respiration rate is generally elevated with exaggerated respiratory movements. Open-mouthed breathing is associated with serious pulmonary disease. A glottal discharge may be present as exudate moves from the lungs. The presence of nasal discharge is common with upper respiratory disease. On auscultation râles may be heard.

'''For information on good husbandry practices, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry|Snake Husbandry]].
[[Image:Boiga_dendritica_Long_hhard.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''The lung of a snake with pneumonia - A mycoplasma species has been isolated by PCR from respiratory tissue.''' © RVC]]
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis of pneumonia is based on [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|history]], [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] and [[:Category: Snake Diagnostics|diagnostic aids]]. [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|Radiography]] is necessary for a definitive diagnosis of pneumonia. Lateral and dorsoventral views should be included. The pulmonary tissue normally has a delicate reticular pattern that is progressively lost caudally. Changes may be diffuse or regionalised. Samples for microbiology may be collected by glottal swabs, tracheal washes or endoscope. Cytology, gram stain and bacterial/fungal culture may help define the aetiology. Biopsy of lung tissue for histology may be diagnostic.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]], [[Lizard and Snake Imaging]] '''and''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].

==Therapy==
A large percentage of respiratory disease has a bacterial component. Treatment should be based on culture and sensitivity but since respiratory disease is usually well advanced by the time of presentation, antibiotics should be commenced immediately. Enrofloxacin is a suitable antibiotic. Nebulisation may be helpful. Non-bacterial infections occur and therapy if possible should be aetiology-specific. Supportive treatment is extremely important. Keep all snakes within the upper end of their [[POTZ]]. Fluid therapy and nutritional support are important but force-feeding should not stress the snake. Water-soluble vitamins may help.

==Prevention==
Poor husbandry practices and non-hygienic conditions predispose to respiratory infections. Bacterial infections are often encountered in immunocompromised snakes. New arrivals into a collection should go through a period of quarantine.

'''For more information, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine]].
[[Category:Snake Diseases]]

Snake physiology quiz

2010-05-17T16:54:07Z

Cporteous:

{{toplink
|linkpage =WikiQuiz
|linktext = WikiQuiz
|pagetype=Quiz
|Review=
}} 

{{Review}}
<WikiQuiz
questionnumber="1"
question="Which form of locomotion do the fastest terrestrial snakes use?"
choice1="Climbing"
choice3="Concertina"
choice2="Lateral undulation"
choice4="Rectilinear crawling"
choice5="Sidewinding"
correctchoice="2"
feedback1="'''Incorrect''' Arboreal snakes use several modes of locomotion on trees depending on species and bark texture. They do not move fastest on branches however. [[Snake Locomotion|WikiVet Article: Snake Locomotion]]."
feedback3="'''Incorrect''' This is common in burrowing snakes and can be seen when a snake crawls through a tube. It is common in arboreal and fossorial snakes, and requires the most energy. [[Snake Locomotion|WikiVet Article: Snake Locomotion]]."
feedback2="'''Correct!''' Lateral undulation is the type of locomotion usually associated with snakes i.e. side to side wriggling. The fastest terrestrial snakes use this method of locomotion [[Snake Locomotion|WikiVet Article: Snake Locomotion]]."
feedback4="'''Incorrect''' This is the slowest type of locomotion. The edges of the scales act as anchor points and the muscles then pull the body up to that point. This is often used by large snakes. [[Snake Locomotion|WikiVet Article: Snake Locomotion]]."
feedback5="'''Incorrect''' This is similar to concertina locomotion but the angle of movement is at 45 degrees to the direction that the snake is pointing. [[Snake Locomotion|WikiVet Article: Snake Locomotion]]."
image= "">
</WikiQuiz>
<WikiQuiz
questionnumber="2"
question="Which is the preferred optimum temperature zone for Garter snakes?"
choice1="14 - 22°C"
choice3="25 - 32°C"
choice2="21 - 32°C"
choice4="25 - 34°C"
choice5="28 - 34°C"
correctchoice="2"
feedback1="'''Incorrect''' Snakes are ectothermic vertebrates that regulate body temperature by behavioural and physiological processes. Optimum functioning of metabolic processes, including digestion, growth, healing, reproduction and immune system is reliant on temperature. [[Preferred optimum temperature zone|Wikivet Article: POTZ]]."
feedback3="'''Incorrect''' This is the POTZ for a common kingsnake or corn/rat snake. [[Kingsnake|WikiVet Article: Kingsnake]] and [[Corn Snake|Corn snake]]."
feedback2="'''Correct!''' Garter snakes require a daytime temperature of about 25° to 30°C falling at night to 24° 26°C. A temperature drop for up to three months between November and February stimulates reproduction. [[Garter Snake|WikiVet Article: Garter snake]]."
feedback4="'''Incorrect''' This is the POTZ for a Burmese python [[Burmese Python|WikiVet Article: Burmese python]]."
feedback5="'''Incorrect''' This is the POTZ for the Boa constrictor [[Boa constrictor|WikiVet Article: Boa constrictor]]."
image= "Image:Garter_snake_240x180_border.jpg‎">
</WikiQuiz>
[[Category:Snake_Quizzes]][[Category:Quizzes]]

Preferred optimum temperature zone

2010-05-17T16:47:11Z

Cporteous:

Often abbreviated to: '''POTZ'''

Reptiles are ectothermic vertebrates that regulate [[Body temperature|body temperature]] by behavioural and physiological processes. Optimum functioning of metabolic processes, including digestion, growth, healing, reproduction and immune system are reliant on temperature.
[[Category:Lizard_and_Snake_Glossary|P]]

It is imperative that captive snakes are kept within their POTZ since long-term health is dependent upon appropriate environmental temperatures.

POTZ for common snake species:
*Common kingsnake: 25 - 32°C
*Corn/rat snake: 25 - 32°C
*Boa constrictor: 28 - 34°C
*Burmese python: 25 - 34°C
*Royal python: 25 - 34°C
*Garter snake: 21 - 32°C

Snake husbandry quiz

2010-05-17T16:19:06Z

Cporteous:

{{toplink
|linkpage =WikiQuiz
|linktext = WikiQuiz
|pagetype=Quiz
|Review=
}} 

{{Review}}
<WikiQuiz
questionnumber="1"
question="What forms the principal diet of a free-living Royal python?"
choice1="Amphibians"
choice3="Fish"
choice2="Birds"
choice4="Mammals"
choice5="Snakes"
correctchoice="4"
feedback1="'''Incorrect''' Many juvenile snake species will feed on amphibians and lizards and move on to larger prey items, for example Cottonmouth snakes and Rat snakes [[Snake Diet|WikiVet Article: Snake Diet]]."
feedback3="'''Incorrect''' Royal pythons are a terrestrial species. Aquatic species prefer fish and amphibians. [[Snake Feeding|WikiVet Article: Snake Feeding]]."
feedback2="'''Incorrect''' Although Royal pythons are known to feed on birds, this is not considered their primary diet. [[Snake Feeding|WikiVet Article: Snake Feeding]]."
feedback4="'''Correct!''' Royal pythons primarily hunt and constrict grassland rodents. In captivity these snakes are often offered albino or fancy coloured mice rather than appropriately coloured prey, and therefore do not receive the visual cues to eat. [[Snake Feeding|WikiVet Article: Snake Feeding]]."
feedback5="'''Incorrect''' Very few snake species are cannibals, an example of which is the King cobra. [[Snake Feeding|WikiVet Article: Snake Feeding]]."
image="">
</WikiQuiz>
<WikiQuiz
questionnumber="2"
question="Which of the following is ''not'' recommended as a heat source when housing snakes?"
choice1="Central heating"
choice3="Hot rocks"
choice2="Heating pads"
choice4="Hot tapes"
choice5="Radiant heat"
correctchoice="3"
feedback1="'''Incorrect''' This heat source is considered suitable. Monitoring of both maximum and minimum temperatures is essential and thermometers should be positioned in the cooler area and the basking area. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
feedback3="'''Correct!''' Hot rocks are not recommended as a heat source for snakes. Thick, keratinised snake skin is without cutaneous sensation, leaving captive reptiles at risk of thermal burns. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
feedback2="'''Incorrect''' Heating pads are considered to provide adequate warmth for a secondary 'hotspot' area but not as a primary heat source due to their localised nature. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
feedback4="'''Incorrect!''' This heat source is considered suitable. Monitoring of both maximum and minimum temperatures is essential and thermometers should be positioned in the cooler area and the basking area. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
feedback5="'''Incorrect!''' Radiant heat is considered appropriate for snake housing. Monitoring of both maximum and minimum temperatures is essential and thermometers should be positioned in the cooler area and the basking area. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
image="">
</WikiQuiz>
<WikiQuiz
questionnumber="3"
question="Which of the following substrates is considered the most appropriate for snake housing?"
choice1="Cedar shavings"
choice3="Gravel"
choice2="Corn cob bedding"
choice4="Peat"
choice5="Newspaper"
correctchoice="5"
feedback1="'''Incorrect''' Shavings of woods such as cedar, which are high in aromatic compounds, should be avoided because they are toxic. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
feedback3="'''Incorrect''' Items that can be ingested e.g. small stones, gravel or corn cob bedding, should be avoided. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
feedback2="'''Incorrect''' Items that can be ingested e.g. small stones, gravel or corn cob bedding, should be avoided. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
feedback4="'''Incorrect''' Peat and gravel look attractive but hide urates and faeces. Gravel may also be ingested. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
feedback5="'''Correct!''' Newspaper is the best substrate as it is disposable, cheap and can be used for the majority of species. Other commonly used substrates include carpet, Astroturf, pine and ash wood shavings. [[Snake Housing|WikiVet Article: Snake Housing]]."
image="">
</WikiQuiz>
<WikiQuiz
questionnumber="4"
question="Which is the most common zoonosis associated with reptiles?"
choice1="Aeromonas"
choice3="Enterobacter"
choice2="Candida"
choice4="Mycobacterium"
choice5="Salmonellosis"
correctchoice="5"
feedback1="'''Incorrect''' Reptiles can also harbour several different opportunistic Gram-negative bacterial pathogens that can infect humans. This includes aeromonas, however it is not the major zoonoosis associated with reptiles. [[Lizard and Snake Zoonoses|WikiVet Article: Lizard and Snake Zoonoses]]."
feedback3="'''Incorrect''' Reptiles can also harbour several different opportunistic Gram-negative bacterial pathogens that can infect humans. This includes candida, however it is not the major zoonoosis associated with reptiles. [[Lizard and Snake Zoonoses|WikiVet Article: Lizard and Snake Zoonoses]]."
feedback2="'''Incorrect''' Reptiles can also harbour several different opportunistic Gram-negative bacterial pathogens that can infect humans. This includes enterobacter, however it is not the major zoonoosis associated with reptiles. [[Lizard and Snake Zoonoses|WikiVet Article: Lizard and Snake Zoonoses]]."
feedback4="'''Incorrect''' Reptiles can also harbour several different opportunistic Gram-negative bacterial pathogens that can infect humans. This includes mycobacterium, however it is not the major zoonoosis associated with reptiles. [[Lizard and Snake Zoonoses|WikiVet Article: Lizard and Snake Zoonoses]]."
feedback5="'''Correct!''' Subclinical infections of reptiles are common and the Salmonella spp. can often be isolated from faeces. However, most reptiles naturally carry these bacteria as a component of their indigenous gut flora, and they are rarely a cause of primary disease. Shedding of salmonella organisms can be intermittent and therefore all reptiles should be considered positive and managed appropriately, regardless of fecal culture results. [[Lizard and Snake Zoonoses|WikiVet Article: Lizard and Snake Zoonoses]].
"image="">
</WikiQuiz>
[[Category:Quizzes]][[Category:Snake_Quizzes]]

WikiQuiz

2010-05-17T16:18:11Z

Cporteous:

{{frontpage
|pagetitle = WikiQuiz
|pagebody =
Welcome to WikiQuiz...the new quiz section of WikiVet. This section contains multiple choice quizzes on a wide range of veterinary topics at all levels of the veterinary course, to allow you to test your knowledge. Every question has been fully reviewed by a relevant expert, (see the review box on each quiz) and provides feedback to correct and incorrect answers as well as links to articles with further information on that topic. Good Luck!
|contenttitle = Quizzes ([[:category:Quizzes|'''All Quizzes''']])
|contentbody =
<big>By System: </big>
[[:Category:Alimentary System Quizzes|Alimentary System]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Alimentary System Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Cardiovascular and Respiratory System Quizzes|Cardiorespiratory System]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Cardiovascular and Respiratory System Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Developmental Biology Quizzes|Developmental Biology]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Developmental Biology Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Endocrine System Quizzes|Endocrine System]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Endocrine System Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Integument Quizzes|Integumentary System]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Integument Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Lymphatic System Quizzes|Lymphatic System]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Lymphatic System Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Musculoskeletal System Quizzes|Musculoskeletal System]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Musculoskeletal System Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Nervous System and Special Senses Quizzes|Nervous and Special Senses]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Nervous System and Special Senses Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Reproductive System Quizzes|Reproductive System]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Reproductive System Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Urinary System Quizzes|Urinary System]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Urinary System Quizzes}})

[[:Category:Haematology and Immunology Quizzes|Haematology and Immunology Quizzes]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Haematology and Immunology Quizzes}})
<big>By Topic: </big>
[[:Category:Anatomy & Physiology Quizzes|Anatomy & Physiology]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Anatomy & Physiology Quizzes}}), [[:Category:Drug Quizzes|Drugs]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Drug Quizzes}}), [[:Category:Infectious Diseases Quizzes|Infectious Disease]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Infectious Diseases Quizzes}}), [[:Category:Pathology Quizzes|Pathology]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Pathology Quizzes}}), [[:Category:Veterinary Public Health Quizzes|Veterinary Public Health]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Veterinary Public Health Quizzes}}), [[:Category:Clinical Quizzes|WikiClinical]] ({{PAGESINCAT:Clinical Quizzes}}), [[:Category:WikiNormal Quizzes|WikiNormals]] ({{PAGESINCAT:WikiNormal Quizzes}})
<big>By Species: </big>
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|logo = WikiQuiz logo RCVS.png
}}

File:Crypto lump copy.jpg

2010-05-17T16:05:41Z

Cporteous: uploaded a new version of "File:Crypto lump copy.jpg"

{|border="1" cellpadding="5"
!Rights
|© RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved
|-
!Author
|Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye
|}

Category:Snake Diseases

2010-05-17T16:03:51Z

Cporteous:

[[Snake|'''Return to the Snake Homepage''']]

Snake Neurological Diseases

2010-05-17T16:02:45Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Star-gazing_boa-1ed.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''Typical "star-gazing" posture of a snake with neurological disease''' © RVC]]
Neurological disease is relatively common in snakes. Viral infections may present with neurological signs and hypothiaminosis is very common in [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]].
==Examination==
As with other problems of snakes, [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|history-taking]] is critical for diagnosis. Signalment information can help determine the cause since many neurological diseases are more prevalent in certain taxa. [[Category:Snake Husbandry|Husbandry information]] will help to determine whether the nervous system is involved specifically or secondarily. Clinical signs of neurological disease in snakes vary from very subtle to severe. There may be only a mild decrease in activity and a drop off in appetite. More obvious signs include disorientation, incoordination, loss of righting reflex, paresis, paralysis, head tremors, opisthotonous and convulsions.
==Diagnosis==
The aetiology of neurological disease can be suggested by signalment. Inclusion body disease (IBD) is almost always seen in Boidae. [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|Ophidian paramyxovirus]] (OPMV) occurs principally in [[Viperidae]]. Hypothiaminosis is common in fish-eating snakes such as [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]]. Disorientation and sluggishness may be attributed to a wide variety of causes but may be simply caused by an inappropriate environmental temperature. [[Snake Physical Examination|Physical examination]] may rule out cases of trauma. The use of diagnostic aids may identify the cause: [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|radiography]] may reveal fractures, [[Lizard and Snake Haematology|haematology]] may indicate an infectious cause, and serology may identify [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|OPMV]]. Response to thiamine is diagnostic for hypothiaminosis. However sometimes the aetiology is only found upon [[Snake Necropsy|necropsy]]. Perivascular cuffing in CNS issue may be associated with viral infections.
==Therapy==
Treatment of neurological disease involves both supportive care and aetiology related therapy. Some forms of neurological disease such as trauma may require up to one year of supportive care before snakes will begin to take prey spontaneously. Months of supportive care are often required for neurological deficits to restore but in many cases they may never heal. In some cases [[Lizard and Snake Euthanasia|euthanasia]] is probably the most humane act. Aetiology related therapy may not be possible in many cases.
==Prevention==
Attention to diet and husbandry is usually the most important part of disease prevention.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Feeding]] '''and''' [[Snake Housing]].
==Causes of neurological disease==
There are many causes of neurological disease in snakes. Here’s a brief overview.

*'''Viral''' - Two viral diseases have been reported to cause neurological problems in snakes – [[Inclusion Body Disease]] and [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|OMPV]]. [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|OPMV]] is primarily associated with [[Snake Respiratory Disease|respiratory pathology]] but can be associated with CNS disease. The clinical significance of infection with western equine encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis is unknown.

*'''Bacterial''' - Bacterial infections, including Staphylococcus aureus and mycobacteria, have been reported to cause neurological disease and abscesses in the vertebral canal.

*'''Fungal''' - Cryptococcus neoformans has been associated with neurological disease. Diagnosis can be confirmed by serology or isolation from CSF.

*'''Parasitic''' - Protozoal neurological disease has been reported in snakes. Acanthmoebic encephalitis causes spasmodic opisthotonus and toxoplasmosis has been associated with meningoencephalitis.

*'''Nutritional''' - Thiamine deficiency is the most common nutritional cause of neurological disease in snakes. Snakes fed incorrectly prepared fish are at risk. Hypobiotinosis may develop from feeding raw egg whites containing avidin, which has anti-biotin activity.

*'''Trauma''' - Trauma neuropathies may occur after direct trauma to the head and vertebral column.

*'''Congenital''' - A caudal coiling problem has been seen in newborn [[Boa constrictor|boa constrictors]]. At necropsy there was a lymphocytic infiltrate in the perimysium of the epaxial muscles.

*'''Metabolic''' - [[Snake Gout|Gout]]-associated neurological disease may result from formation of tophi in CNS tissue.

*'''Toxicosis''' - Insecticide poisoning, most commonly organophosphate, has been reported in snakes and caused convulsions. Ivermectin overdose has been reported to cause neuromuscular weakness.

*'''Neoplasia''' - Reports of neoplasia of the nervous system of snakes are uncommon but leukaemias have been associated with neurological disease.

*'''Behavioural''' - Aggressive behaviour may be normal in some species such as [[Anaconda|anacondas]]. However, aggression in large [[Python|pythons]] has been associated with sudden changes in the [[Snake Diet|diet]]. Some large pythons also become conditioned to become aggressive by some feeding techniques.
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Gout

2010-05-17T14:40:57Z

Cporteous:

{{unfinished}}
[[Image:Bump2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Biopsy of this swelling revealed renal gout''' © RVC]]
Gout is a metabolic disease where there is a precipitation of urate crystals in tissue. There are two types of gout in animals.
*In primary gout there is an overproduction of [[Uric acid|uric acid]] related to an innate metabolic problem.
*In secondary gout acquired disease interferes with the [[Uric acid|uric acid]] metabolism. Terrestrial reptiles are predisposed to secondary gout since nitrogenous waste is excreted as [[Uric acid|uric acid]].

In snakes kidney disease often leads to the development of the [[Visceral gout|visceral form of gout]].

'''For more information on excretion, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Excretion]].
==Examination==
History may show poor husbandry including limited access to water. Snakes often present as anorexic and lethargic. Often if kidney disease is involved there is a palpable lump in the caudal third.

'''Fore more information on differential diagnosis of lumps in the body, see''' [[Snake Lumps and Bumps]].
[[Image:Necropsy_copy.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Tophi in renal tissue''' - ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]
==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis of gout may be suspected on history and physical examination. [[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|Biochemistry]] may indicate a hyperuricaemia. Sometimes [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|radiography]] is useful if calcium is deposited with the urate crystals. Biopsy of any lumps may be useful. A definite diagnosis is the demonstration of tophi in diseased tissue.

'''For more information on physical examinations, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].

'''For more information on biopsy collection, see''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation|Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].
[[Image:Renal_gout_python_regius.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Tophi in diseased tissue''' - ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]
==Therapy==
Supportive treatment especially aimed at rehydration may be useful but gout carries a poor prognosis. Previously allopurinol (a xanthine oxidase inhibitor that decreases formation of uric acid) has been recommended as a treatment of hyperuricaemia in reptiles and birds but in fact appears to be of little use. Other drugs such as uricases (enzymes involved in the degradation of uric acid to allantoin) may be more useful.
==Prevention==
Any bouts of dehydration will predispose to the development of gout so good husbandry is important in prevention. Veterinarians should ensure adequate hydration of reptiles prior to any drug therapy especially the use of nephrotoxic drugs.

'''For more information on good husbandry practices, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry| Snake Husbandry]].
[[Category:Snake_Diseases]]

Snake Respiratory Disease

2010-05-17T14:20:43Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:Dyspnoeic_royal_python_ed.jpg|350px|thumb|right|'''Open-mouthed breathing in snakes is a sign of serious pulmonary disease''' - ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]
==Respiratory disease==
Respiratory disease is common in snakes and respiratory signs are common presenting complaints. Pneumonia has a multifactorial aetiology including poor husbandry and infectious agents, usually Gram-negative bacteria.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Respiratory System]] '''and''' [[Lizard and Snake Respiration|Snake Respiration]].
==Examination==
History usually reveals inappropriate husbandry practices. Snakes with pneumonia will most often be presented when the disease is quite advanced. On [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] dyspnoea may be seen. The respiration rate is generally elevated with exaggerated respiratory movements. Open-mouthed breathing is associated with serious pulmonary disease. A glottal discharge may be present as exudate moves from the lungs. The presence of nasal discharge is common with upper respiratory disease. On auscultation râles may be heard.

'''For information on good husbandry practices, see''' [[:Category: Snake Husbandry|Snake Husbandry]].
[[Image:Boiga_dendritica_Long_hhard.jpg|300px|thumb|right|'''The lung of a snake with pneumonia''' - ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis of pneumonia is based on [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|history]], [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] and [[:Category: Snake Diagnostics|diagnostic aids]]. [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|Radiography]] is necessary for a definitive diagnosis of pneumonia. Lateral and dorsoventral views should be included. The pulmonary tissue normally has a delicate reticular pattern that is progressively lost caudally. Changes may be diffuse or regionalised. Samples for microbiology may be collected by glottal swabs, tracheal washes or endoscope. Cytology, gram stain and bacterial/fungal culture may help define the aetiology. Biopsy of lung tissue for histology may be diagnostic. A mycoplasma species has been isolated by PCR from respiratory tissue.

'''For more information, see''' [[Snake Physical Examination]], [[Lizard and Snake Imaging]] '''and''' [[Lizard and Snake Specimen Collection and Evaluation]].
==Therapy==
A large percentage of respiratory disease has a bacterial component. Treatment should be based on culture and sensitivity but since respiratory disease is usually well advanced by the time of presentation antibiotics should be commenced immediately. Enrofloxacin is a suitable antibiotic. Nebulisation may be helpful. Non-bacterial infections occur and therapy if possible should be aetiology-specific. Supportive treatment is extremely important. Keep all snakes within the upper end of their [[POTZ]]. Fluid therapy and nutritional support are important but force-feeding should not stress the snake. Water-soluble vitamins may help.
==Prevention==
Poor husbandry practices and non-hygienic conditions predispose to respiratory infections. Bacterial infections are often encountered in immunocompromised snakes. New arrivals into a collection should go through a period of quarantine.

'''For more information, see [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine]].
[[Category:Snake Diseases]]

Snake Housing

2010-05-11T16:44:56Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
==Introduction to housing==
Captive husbandry of snakes presents several basic problems. The biology of most free-living snakes has not been recorded and it may be impossible to match nature in a captive situation. Improper husbandry is the most important cause of disease in snakes since it compromises a snake's [[Snake Immune System|immune system]] and leads to opportunistic infections. Important aspects of [[:Category:Snake Husbandry|snake husbandry]] include the cage environment, [[Snake Diet|nutrition]] and water.
==Housing Considerations==
Considerations for cages include size, shape, security, ease of cleaning, ease of access and positioning.
* Cage size is related to size and [[:Category:Snake Species|species]]. As snakes grow they need larger cages. Neonates can be kept in relatively small containers but adequate ventilation is necessary. Obesity is a problem in large captive snakes and for this reason they should be provided ample space within an enclosure for physical activity.
* Arboreal species require high cages with a three dimensional climbing area while floor area is important for terrestrial species.
* Security is of major importance. Cages that are sealed along their seams and have doors or lids that close simply and securely are essential.
* Cages should be able to be easily cleaned since they are continually being contaminated with faeces. Cages that can be steam-cleaned are advisable for the larger species.
* Doors or lids need to be simple and give adequate access.
* Ideally cages should be placed against an interior wall and out of direct sunlight.
==Temperature==
All snakes are ectothermic and each species has a [[Preferred optimum temperature zone|preferred optimum temperature zone (POTZ)]]. The ambient cage temperature should be at the lower end of a [[POTZ]]. The cage should also have a "hotspot" at the upper end of the [[POTZ]] so that a temperature gradient is established. This is essential since it allows a snake to choose the temperature appropriate for its present metabolic state. A night temperature drop of about 5°C is adequate.
* Sick reptiles tend to seek the area in the cage that is towards the high end of their [[POTZ]].
* Snakes kept at suboptimal temperatures often regurgitate their food.
** '''For more information, see''' [[Snake Feeding]].
==Heating==
The primary heat source can be central heating, heat tapes or pads, or radiant heat. A secondary heat source for a "hotspot" is then positioned at one end of the cage. Lights should not be used as heat sources since this will interfere with the photoperiod.

* Snakes should not be able to come in contact with any bulbs, and hot rocks are not recommended because of the possibility of burns.
** '''For more information on burns, see''' [[Snake Vesicular Dermatitis]].
* Monitoring of both maximum and minimum temperatures is essential and thermometers should be positioned in the cooler area and the basking area. Thermostats are useful to allow more accurate control of temperatures.
==Lighting==
Lighting requirements for captive snakes are ill-defined. Snakes satisfy their vitamin D3 requirements from their [[Snake Diet|diet]] but many species benefit from access to unfiltered sunlight (while still remaining withing their [[POTZ]]). The length of photoperiod may be important for temperate species therefore timers are required for the lighting.

{| border="1"
|+ '''Suitable Photoperiods'''
! Species !! Summer (hrs) !! Winter (hrs) !! Spring/Autumn (hrs)
|-
! Tropical
| 13 || 11 || 12
|-
! Temperate
|15
|9
|12
|}

Full-spectrum bulbs are sold with a numeric designation. 5.0 bulbs appear sufficient to stimulate the necessary previtamin D synthesis in lizards and are also considered suffifient for snakes. Bulbs should be placed no further than 18 inches from the animal to ensure maximum UVB exposure. Glass refracts UVB radiation, and so glass lids are an inappropriate housing feature. Full-spectrum bulbs usually have an 8 to 14 month activity period.
==Substrate==
The substrate should be simple to allow easy cleaning. Newspaper is perhaps the best substrate as it is disposable, cheap and can be used for the majority of species. Other commonly used substrates include carpet, Astroturf, pine and ash wood shavings. Shavings of woods such as cedar, which are high in aromatic compounds, should be avoided because they are toxic. Items that can be ingested e.g. small stones, gravel, corn cob bedding, should also be avoided. Peat and gravel look attractive but hide urates and faeces. Fossorial (burrowing) species such as sand boas require a substrate (such as sand) in which they can burrow. Leaf litter is a good alternative too. Imported materials should be inspected closely to avoid the introduction of unwanted pests, such as [[Insecta|insects]].
==Humidity==
[[Image:800px-Eastern_Green_Mamba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Humidity is an important husbandry factor in preventing an incomplete shed ([[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdesis]])''' - WikiCommons]]
A relative humiditiy of 50-70% is adequate for most species but some species have more specific requirements. Desert species require 20-30% while a higher humidity is required for rainforest species (e.g. emerald tree boa). The humidity can be increased by spraying the environment and by adding water-retaining substances such as moss, peat or vermiculite.

Inadequate humidity (e.g. excessive air conditioning) leads to stress, dehydration and [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]]. Excessive humidity (e.g. inadequate cage ventilation) leads to skin infections. A humidity chamber (a container filled with damp tissue paper) can be provided for [[Ecdysis|ecdysis]]. The problems associated with low humidity can sometimes be overcome by daily water baths for 1-2 hours.
* Observation of shedding is a good way to judge the humidity since snakes should shed in one piece if the humidity is adequate.
* Excessive humidity is frequently associated with dermatitis.
** '''For more information on snake shedding, see''' [[Snake Shedding]].
* [[Snake Mites|Snake mites]], [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]], [[Snake Vesicular Dermatitis|blister disease]] and [[Snake Eye|retained spectacles]] are all influenced by humidity.

==Water==
Clean fresh water in a bowl large enough to permit immersion/bathing should be available at all times and is essential for [[Ecdysis|ecdydsis]] (and to prevent [[Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]]). At a mimimum the water should be changed and the bowl cleaned daily and preferably after the snake soaks. The feeding area should not be adjacent to the water. Some species require drip systems and spraying to accept water. Many pit vipers will not drink from containers and emerald tree boas prefer to drink when water collects in their body coils following spraying.

Aquatic and semiaquatic species require special attention and water quality control is essential. Ideally a filtration mechanism prevents the water from becoming stagnant. Undergravel and sand filters should be used in addition to external filters. Commercially available salts for marine fish tanks can be used for sea snakes and other marine snakes.
==Branches==
Arboreal species require branches in a high tank to reflect their free-living environment. These branches must be strong enough to support the weight of the snakes and be securely propped to prevent accidents. Only non-resinous oak, fruit or other hardwoods should be used.
==Visual security==
Cage furniture should be kept to a minimum but a hiding place is essential. Terrestrial snakes prefer to crawl into small holes or crevices when at rest, and many will not feed if a hiding area is not provided. Silk trees or plants can offer visual security and require minimal maintenance. They help to augment the relative humidity if frequently misted and aid in a snake's ability to camoflage itself.
[[Category:Snake Husbandry]]

Snake Housing

2010-05-11T16:39:34Z

Cporteous: /* Humidity */

{{review}}
==Introduction to housing==
Captive husbandry of snakes presents several basic problems. The biology of most free-living snakes has not been recorded and it may be impossible to match nature in a captive situation. Improper husbandry is the most important cause of disease in snakes since it compromises a snake's [[Snake Immune System|immune system]] and leads to opportunistic infections. Important aspects of [[:Category:Snake Husbandry|snake husbandry]] include the cage environment, [[Snake Diet|nutrition]] and water.
==Housing Considerations==
Considerations for cages include size, shape, security, ease of cleaning, ease of access and positioning.
*Cage size is related to size and [[:Category:Snake Species|species]]. As snakes grow they need larger cages. Neonates can be kept in relatively small containers but adequate ventilation is necessary. Obesity is a problem in large captive snakes and for this reason they should be provided ample space within an enclosure for physical activity.
*Arboreal species require high cages with a three dimensional climbing area while floor area is important for terrestrial species.
*Security is of major importance. Cages that are sealed along their seams and have doors or lids that close simply and securely are essential.
*Cages should be able to be easily cleaned since they are continually being contaminated with faeces. Cages that can be steam-cleaned are advisable for the larger species.
*Doors or lids need to be simple and give adequate access.
*Ideally cages should be placed against an interior wall and out of direct sunlight.
==Temperature==
All snakes are ectothermic and each species has a [[Preferred optimum temperature zone|preferred optimum temperature zone (POTZ)]]. The ambient cage temperature should be at the lower end of a [[POTZ]]. The cage should also have a "hotspot" at the upper end of the [[POTZ]] so that a temperature gradient is established. This is essential since it allows a snake to choose the temperature appropriate for its present metabolic state. A night temperature drop of about 5°C is adequate.
*Sick reptiles tend to seek the area in the cage that is towards the high end of their [[POTZ]].
*Snakes kept at suboptimal temperatures often regurgitate their food. For more information on snake feeding, [[Snake Feeding|see here]].
==Heating==
The primary heat source can be central heating, heat tapes or pads, or radiant heat. A secondary heat source for a "hotspot" is then positioned at one end of the cage. Lights should not be used as heat sources since this will interfere with the photoperiod.

*Snakes should not be able to come in contact with any bulbs, and hot rocks are not recommended because of the possibility of burns. See [[Snake Vesicular Dermatitis|blister disease]].
*Monitoring of both maximum and minimum temperatures is essential and thermometers should be positioned in the cooler area and the basking area. Thermostats are useful to allow more accurate control of temperatures.

==Lighting==
Lighting requirements for captive snakes are ill-defined. Snakes satisfy their vitamin D3 requirements from their [[Snake Diet|diet]] but many species benefit from access to unfiltered sunlight (while still remaining withing their [[POTZ]]). The length of photoperiod may be important for temperate species therefore timers are required for the lighting.

{| border="1"
|+ '''Suitable Photoperiods'''
! Species !! Summer (hrs) !! Winter (hrs) !! Spring/Autumn (hrs)
|-
! Tropical
| 13 || 11 || 12
|-
! Temperate
|15
|9
|12
|}

Full-spectrum bulbs are sold with a numeric designation. 5.0 bulbs appear sufficient to stimulate the necessary previtamin D synthesis in lizards and are also considered suffifient for snakes. Bulbs should be placed no further than 18 inches from the animal to ensure maximum UVB exposure. Glass refracts UVB radiation, and so glass lids are an inappropriate housing feature. Full-spectrum bulbs usually have an 8 to 14 month activity period.
==Substrate==
The substrate should be simple to allow easy cleaning. Newspaper is perhaps the best substrate as it is disposable, cheap and can be used for the majority of species. Other commonly used substrates include carpet, Astroturf, pine and ash wood shavings. Shavings of woods such as cedar, which are high in aromatic compounds, should be avoided because they are toxic. Items that can be ingested e.g. small stones, gravel, corn cob bedding, should also be avoided. Peat and gravel look attractive but hide urates and faeces. Fossorial (burrowing) species such as sand boas require a substrate (such as sand) in which they can burrow. Leaf litter is a good alternative too. Imported materials should be inspected closely to avoid the introduction of unwanted pests, such as [[Insecta|insects]].
==Humidity==
[[Image:800px-Eastern_Green_Mamba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Humidity is an important husbandry factor in preventing an incomplete shed ([[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdesis]])''' - WikiCommons]]
A relative humiditiy of 50-70% is adequate for most species but some species have more specific requirements. Desert species require 20-30% while a higher humidity is required for rainforest species (e.g. emerald tree boa). The humidity can be increased by spraying the environment and by adding water-retaining substances such as moss, peat or vermiculite.

Inadequate humidity (e.g. excessive air conditioning) leads to stress, dehydration and [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]]. Excessive humidity (e.g. inadequate cage ventilation) leads to skin infections. A humidity chamber (a container filled with damp tissue paper) can be provided for [[Ecdysis|ecdysis]]. The problems associated with low humidity can sometimes be overcome by daily water baths for 1-2 hours.
* Observation of shedding is a good way to judge the humidity since snakes should shed in one piece if the humidity is adequate.
* Excessive humidity is frequently associated with dermatitis.
** '''For more information on snake shedding, see''' [[Snake Shedding]].
* [[Snake Mites|Snake mites]], [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]], [[Snake Vesicular Dermatitis|blister disease]] and [[Snake Eye|retained spectacles]] are all influenced by humidity.

==Water==
Clean fresh water in a bowl large enough to permit immersion/bathing should be available at all times and is essential for [[Ecdysis|ecdydsis]] (and to prevent [[Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]]). At a mimimum the water should be changed and the bowl cleaned daily and preferably after the snake soaks. The feeding area should not be adjacent to the water. Some species require drip systems and spraying to accept water. Many pit vipers will not drink from containers and emerald tree boas prefer to drink when water collects in their body coils following spraying.

Aquatic and semiaquatic species require special attention and water quality control is essential. Ideally a filtration mechanism prevents the water from becoming stagnant. Undergravel and sand filters should be used in addition to external filters. Commercially available salts for marine fish tanks can be used for sea snakes and other marine snakes.
==Branches==
Arboreal species require branches in a high tank to reflect their free-living environment. These branches must be strong enough to support the weight of the snakes and be securely propped to prevent accidents. Only non-resinous oak, fruit or other hardwoods should be used.
==Visual security==
Cage furniture should be kept to a minimum but a hiding place is essential. Terrestrial snakes prefer to crawl into small holes or crevices when at rest, and many will not feed if a hiding area is not provided. Silk trees or plants can offer visual security and require minimal maintenance. They help to augment the relative humidity if frequently misted and aid in a snake's ability to camoflage itself.
[[Category:Snake Husbandry]]

File:800px-Eastern Green Mamba.jpg

2010-05-11T16:37:11Z

Cporteous:

Snake Handling and Restraint

2010-05-11T16:29:59Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
[[Image:snakeheadhold.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Restraint of a [[Royal Python|Royal python]]''' © RVC]]
==Physical restraint==
Physical or [[Lizard and Snake Anaesthesia|chemical restraint]] of snakes is frequently required in order to follow safe protocols for a [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]]. The best method for transport of non-venomous and non-aggressive species is simply a cotton bag into which snakes will often retreat voluntarily. Prior to handling any snake it is important to establish the species otherwise dangerous snakes may be inadvertently handled without due care. Ideally snakes should be handled minimally. Hypothermia is not a method of restraint. The oculovasal reflex is not seen in snakes. When handling a snake for the first time it is safest to grasp just behind a [[:Category:Snake Anatomy|snake’s head]] before lifting the rest of the body.
*Be gentle when handling any snakes.
*[[:Category:Snake Species|Some species]] must be handled with care, even though they are nonvenomous, since they can be very aggressive. These include reticulated pythons and anacondas.
*Large snakes, such as [[Burmese Python|Burmese pythons]], should not be handled by one person alone in case of accident.
*Some snakes may defecate during manual restraint so it is advisable for the [[Vent|vent]] and lower part of the body to be kept in a bag (e.g. pillow case).
===Handling===
Nonvenomous snakes should be physically restrained by holding the head at the quadrate/mandible level and supporting the body of the snake. For every three to four feet of snake body, an extra handler should be positioned to support the spine. A snake should never be handled by being placed around the neck of a human. The behaviour of the animal should be observed from a distance prior to grasping. Large constrictors should only be handled when there are two people present. They are extremely powerful and a single handler is in danger of injury, even death. There may also be legal considerations regarding the possession of dangerous animals so ascertain that these are fulfilled.
====One-handed technique restraint====
Most pet snakes are accustomed to some handling so in many instances restraint can be minimal. While the snake is allowed to grip a wrist and forearm, the hand restrains the snake's head at the base of the skull. The other hand is then free.
====Two-handed technique restraint====
A snake needs to be supported at a minimum of two points on the body. One person can hold the body and move with the snake as it moves. A second person uses minimal pressure to control the head.
==Transportation==
Aggressive snakes should be restrained before they are removed from their transportation bag. This is achieved by holding the head behind the occiput using the thumb and middle finger, while the index finger is placed on top of the head. The larger pythons and anacondas can exceed 6m in length and 150kg in weight and are powerful and potentially dangerous. For these animals, a second or even third handler will be required to support the body during the examination. It is usually safer and more convenient to sedate a large pugnacious snake than to struffle on and risk injury to the snake, client or staff.
==Equipment==
For particularly aggressive or poisonous snakes, clear plastic tubes are very useful. The snake is lifted from its container with a snake hook and placed on the floor. Clear plastic tubing that is just wider than the head of the snake is held in tongs in front of the snake's head. As the snake crawls into the tube, both the tube and the snake are grabbed quickly with the head and upper part of the body within the tube. Openings can be cut into the tube to allow the clinician access to the snake's body for examination or collection of samples. Tubing may not be appropriate for some limber elapids because of the potential for turning within the tubing. Gloves and nooses are best not used because of the potential for unintentional injury.
==Venomous snakes==
Venomous snakes should obviously only be handled by experienced personnel with appropriate equipment and preferably be treated by experienced veterinarians. Proper identification of any venomous snakes is of the utmost importance, and antivenom should always be readily available. In case of a human bite, it is necessary to have quick access to this antivenom. A veterinarian working with venomous snakes needs to be aware of the laws regarding dangerous animals. Possession of venomous snakes is regulated so make certain that the owner has the appropriate licences. Also check with the appropriate authorities if you, the veterinarian, need to be specially licensed to treat or house venomous snakes.
*At least two people should always be involved in handling a venomous snake.
*Large, obvious signs that read "VENOMOUS SNAKE" should be placed on the outside of the enclosure
*An emergency telephone with essential contact numbers should be located nearby of venomous snake enclosures.
*An antivenin protocol should be developed with a local hospital.

==Chemical restraint==
Restraint can be induced by parenteral injection of a variety of sedatives. Ketamine is a commonly used dissociative. To facilitate intravenous induction ketamine can be administered by intramuscular injection.

*Find out more about [[Lizard and Snake Anaesthesia|anaesthesia in reptiles]].
'''Useful resources'''
*[http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/213400.htm&word=snakes Snakebite Introduction (invenomation treatment) - The Merck Veterinary Manual]

[[Category:Snake_Examination]]
[[Category:Snake_Husbandry]]

File:Snakeheadhold.jpg

2010-05-11T16:29:10Z

Cporteous:

File:Snake eating mouse ed.jpg

2010-05-11T16:28:20Z

Cporteous:

Snake Feeding and Digestion

2010-05-11T16:27:20Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
All snakes are carnivores. With over 2900 different species, some snakes have highly [[Snake Diet|specialised diets]] (eggs, lizards, frogs, fish, fish eggs or invertebrates such as slugs or termites) while others are generalists and will eat a wide variety of prey items. Common pet snakes such as rat snakes, milk snakes boas and [[Royal Python|pythons]] typically feed on rodents but some pet and many exhibition snakes require [[Snake Diet|special diets]]. It is therefore necessary to have species-specific information to determine the most appropriate prey.

The gastrointestinal tract of the snake is simple and relatively short compared with other reptiles. Because of this comparative physiology, it it vital that these animals are given a high quality diet in captivity to maximise absorption of essential nutrients.

* '''Find out information on the''' [[Snake Digestive System]].

* '''Find out more about how the snake head is adapted to ingest whole prey in the''' [[Snake Musculoskeletal System]].

==Size and type of prey==
* The size of the prey can be about the same diameter as the snake's head. The feeding of whole prey is similar to a snake's diet in the wild. The feeding of pieces of prey (e.g. fish off-cuts to [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]]) can lead to diet related diseases. In general, since snakes eat whole animals, nutritional problems are relatively uncommon.
* Aquatic species usually prefer fish and amphibian prey items.
* Arboreal snakes usually prefer avian and reptilian prey items.
* Terrestrial snakes will readily accept different prey items.
* Find out more information on [[Snake Diet|specific snake diets]].
==Frequency of feeding==
[[Image:Snake_eating_mouse_ed.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Snake ingesting whole prey''' - © RVC]]
* Young, growing snakes may require food every 2 to 3 days.
* Active snakes such as garter snakes require several feeds per week.
*Small adult snakes may eat weekly or more often.
* Giant snakes may only eat 4 to 6 times yearly.
* Snakes may not feed during [[Snake Shedding|ecdydsis]].
* Some snakes do not feed during the breeding season.
* Potential aetiologies for anorexia in snakes that can be hard to acclimate to captivity include inappropriate prey type or size (see [[Snake Diet|diets]]), inappropriate environmental temperatures (see [[Snake Housing|housing]]), dehydration, and chronic [[:Category:Snake Diseases|disease]].

'''Royal Python'''
* Environmental cues can be important for feeding. A [[Royal Python|royal python]] is far more likely to eat a rodent that is similar in colour to agouti coloured free-living rodents. In captivity these snakes are often offered albino or fancy coloured mice rather than appropriately coloured prey and therefore do not receive the visual cues to eat.

'''Garter Snake'''
* The presence of thiaminases in frozen fish can lead to clinical disease in fish-eating snakes, such as [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]].
==Preparation of food==
Care of the prey item prior to feeding is important since nutritional deficiencies in the snake may occur if the animal being fed has been kept on an inappropriate diet. Similarly, if poor husbandry of prey items is practiced then they may serve as reservoirs for disease. Prey rodents should not have been treated with topical parasiticides e.g. permethrins, within three weeks of being offered to a snake (the dealer can confirm this). In addition, prey should not have been administered drugs such as antimicrobials and euthanasia compounds. In zoological institutions prey is often frozen at 0°C as a method of food preservation.

Snakes are heavily reliant on olfactory cues when hunting (see [[Snake Special Senses|snake special senses]], pet owners may be encouraged to "scent" a mouse or rat by rubbing an atypical prey species to stimulate feeding.
==Feeding live prey==
Food items should be humanely euthanised using carbon dioxide or cervical dislocation. Because snakes hunt using olfactory senses, they can be easily trained to accept euthanised prey. It is not recommended to feed live prey for several reasons:
# Excessive stress to the prey because of the environment.
# Injuries to the snake from the prey.
# Illegal in the U.K.
==Obesity==
In general, snakes are overfed in captivity and it is not uncommon to be presented with an obese animal in practice. To prevent obesity, snakes should be regularly weighed and measured, and a body condition score determined. See [[Snake Physical Examination|snake physical examination]].
==Water==
Snakes derive a significant amount of water from their prey. Many species will also drink from standing water, therefore a large water basin that provides an additional soaking area is recommended. Soaking can help facilitate [[Ecdysis|shedding]] and stimulate the gastrointestinal tract.
==References==
Fowler, M.E. and Miller, R.E. (2003). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Saunders, 5th Edition. pp. 84. ISBN 0-7216-9499-3

Mitchell, M.A. (2004). Snake care and husbandry. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice 7:2 pp. 421-446.

[[Category:Snake_Husbandry]]

Snake Feeding and Digestion

2010-05-11T16:26:38Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
All snakes are carnivores. With over 2900 different species, some snakes have highly [[Snake Diet|specialised diets]] (eggs, lizards, frogs, fish, fish eggs or invertebrates such as slugs or termites) while others are generalists and will eat a wide variety of prey items. Common pet snakes such as rat snakes, milk snakes boas and [[Royal Python|pythons]] typically feed on rodents but some pet and many exhibition snakes require [[Snake Diet|special diets]]. It is therefore necessary to have species-specific information to determine the most appropriate prey.

The gastrointestinal tract of the snake is simple and relatively short compared with other reptiles. Because of this comparative physiology, it it vital that these animals are given a high quality diet in captivity to maximise absorption of essential nutrients.

* '''Find out information on the''' [[Snake Digestive System]].

* '''Find out more about how the snake head is adapted to ingest whole prey in the''' [[Snake Musculoskeletal System]].

==Size and type of prey==
* The size of the prey can be about the same diameter as the snake's head. The feeding of whole prey is similar to a snake's diet in the wild. The feeding of pieces of prey (e.g. fish off-cuts to [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]]) can lead to diet related diseases. In general, since snakes eat whole animals, nutritional problems are relatively uncommon.
* Aquatic species usually prefer fish and amphibian prey items.
* Arboreal snakes usually prefer avian and reptilian prey items.
* Terrestrial snakes will readily accept different prey items.
* Find out more information on [[Snake Diet|specific snake diets]].
==Frequency of feeding==
[[Image:Snake_eating_mouse_ed.jpg|250px|thumb|right|© RVC]]
* Young, growing snakes may require food every 2 to 3 days.
* Active snakes such as garter snakes require several feeds per week.
*Small adult snakes may eat weekly or more often.
* Giant snakes may only eat 4 to 6 times yearly.
* Snakes may not feed during [[Snake Shedding|ecdydsis]].
* Some snakes do not feed during the breeding season.
* Potential aetiologies for anorexia in snakes that can be hard to acclimate to captivity include inappropriate prey type or size (see [[Snake Diet|diets]]), inappropriate environmental temperatures (see [[Snake Housing|housing]]), dehydration, and chronic [[:Category:Snake Diseases|disease]].

'''Royal Python'''
* Environmental cues can be important for feeding. A [[Royal Python|royal python]] is far more likely to eat a rodent that is similar in colour to agouti coloured free-living rodents. In captivity these snakes are often offered albino or fancy coloured mice rather than appropriately coloured prey and therefore do not receive the visual cues to eat.

'''Garter Snake'''
* The presence of thiaminases in frozen fish can lead to clinical disease in fish-eating snakes, such as [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]].
==Preparation of food==
Care of the prey item prior to feeding is important since nutritional deficiencies in the snake may occur if the animal being fed has been kept on an inappropriate diet. Similarly, if poor husbandry of prey items is practiced then they may serve as reservoirs for disease. Prey rodents should not have been treated with topical parasiticides e.g. permethrins, within three weeks of being offered to a snake (the dealer can confirm this). In addition, prey should not have been administered drugs such as antimicrobials and euthanasia compounds. In zoological institutions prey is often frozen at 0°C as a method of food preservation.

Snakes are heavily reliant on olfactory cues when hunting (see [[Snake Special Senses|snake special senses]], pet owners may be encouraged to "scent" a mouse or rat by rubbing an atypical prey species to stimulate feeding.
==Feeding live prey==
Food items should be humanely euthanised using carbon dioxide or cervical dislocation. Because snakes hunt using olfactory senses, they can be easily trained to accept euthanised prey. It is not recommended to feed live prey for several reasons:
# Excessive stress to the prey because of the environment.
# Injuries to the snake from the prey.
# Illegal in the U.K.
==Obesity==
In general, snakes are overfed in captivity and it is not uncommon to be presented with an obese animal in practice. To prevent obesity, snakes should be regularly weighed and measured, and a body condition score determined. See [[Snake Physical Examination|snake physical examination]].
==Water==
Snakes derive a significant amount of water from their prey. Many species will also drink from standing water, therefore a large water basin that provides an additional soaking area is recommended. Soaking can help facilitate [[Ecdysis|shedding]] and stimulate the gastrointestinal tract.
==References==
Fowler, M.E. and Miller, R.E. (2003). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Saunders, 5th Edition. pp. 84. ISBN 0-7216-9499-3

Mitchell, M.A. (2004). Snake care and husbandry. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice 7:2 pp. 421-446.

[[Category:Snake_Husbandry]]

Snake Feeding and Digestion

2010-05-11T16:26:06Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
All snakes are carnivores. With over 2900 different species, some snakes have highly [[Snake Diet|specialised diets]] (eggs, lizards, frogs, fish, fish eggs or invertebrates such as slugs or termites) while others are generalists and will eat a wide variety of prey items. Common pet snakes such as rat snakes, milk snakes boas and [[Royal Python|pythons]] typically feed on rodents but some pet and many exhibition snakes require [[Snake Diet|special diets]]. It is therefore necessary to have species-specific information to determine the most appropriate prey.

The gastrointestinal tract of the snake is simple and relatively short compared with other reptiles. Because of this comparative physiology, it it vital that these animals are given a high quality diet in captivity to maximise absorption of essential nutrients.

* '''Find out information on the''' [[Snake Digestive System]].

* '''Find out more about how the snake head is adapted to ingest whole prey in the''' [[Snake Musculoskeletal System]].

==Size and type of prey==
* The size of the prey can be about the same diameter as the snake's head.
The feeding of whole prey is similar to a snake's diet in the wild. The feeding of pieces of prey (e.g. fish off-cuts to [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]]) can lead to diet related diseases. In general, since snakes eat whole animals, nutritional problems are relatively uncommon.
* Aquatic species usually prefer fish and amphibian prey items.
* Arboreal snakes usually prefer avian and reptilian prey items.
* Terrestrial snakes will readily accept different prey items.
* Find out more information on [[Snake Diet|specific snake diets]].
==Frequency of feeding==
[[Image:Snake_eating_mouse_ed.jpg|250px|thumb|right|© RVC]]
* Young, growing snakes may require food every 2 to 3 days.
* Active snakes such as garter snakes require several feeds per week.
*Small adult snakes may eat weekly or more often.
* Giant snakes may only eat 4 to 6 times yearly.
* Snakes may not feed during [[Snake Shedding|ecdydsis]].
* Some snakes do not feed during the breeding season.
* Potential aetiologies for anorexia in snakes that can be hard to acclimate to captivity include inappropriate prey type or size (see [[Snake Diet|diets]]), inappropriate environmental temperatures (see [[Snake Housing|housing]]), dehydration, and chronic [[:Category:Snake Diseases|disease]].

'''Royal Python'''
* Environmental cues can be important for feeding. A [[Royal Python|royal python]] is far more likely to eat a rodent that is similar in colour to agouti coloured free-living rodents. In captivity these snakes are often offered albino or fancy coloured mice rather than appropriately coloured prey and therefore do not receive the visual cues to eat.

'''Garter Snake'''
* The presence of thiaminases in frozen fish can lead to clinical disease in fish-eating snakes, such as [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]].
==Preparation of food==
Care of the prey item prior to feeding is important since nutritional deficiencies in the snake may occur if the animal being fed has been kept on an inappropriate diet. Similarly, if poor husbandry of prey items is practiced then they may serve as reservoirs for disease. Prey rodents should not have been treated with topical parasiticides e.g. permethrins, within three weeks of being offered to a snake (the dealer can confirm this). In addition, prey should not have been administered drugs such as antimicrobials and euthanasia compounds. In zoological institutions prey is often frozen at 0°C as a method of food preservation.

Snakes are heavily reliant on olfactory cues when hunting (see [[Snake Special Senses|snake special senses]], pet owners may be encouraged to "scent" a mouse or rat by rubbing an atypical prey species to stimulate feeding.
==Feeding live prey==
Food items should be humanely euthanised using carbon dioxide or cervical dislocation. Because snakes hunt using olfactory senses, they can be easily trained to accept euthanised prey. It is not recommended to feed live prey for several reasons:
# Excessive stress to the prey because of the environment.
# Injuries to the snake from the prey.
# Illegal in the U.K.
==Obesity==
In general, snakes are overfed in captivity and it is not uncommon to be presented with an obese animal in practice. To prevent obesity, snakes should be regularly weighed and measured, and a body condition score determined. See [[Snake Physical Examination|snake physical examination]].
==Water==
Snakes derive a significant amount of water from their prey. Many species will also drink from standing water, therefore a large water basin that provides an additional soaking area is recommended. Soaking can help facilitate [[Ecdysis|shedding]] and stimulate the gastrointestinal tract.
==References==
Fowler, M.E. and Miller, R.E. (2003). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Saunders, 5th Edition. pp. 84. ISBN 0-7216-9499-3

Mitchell, M.A. (2004). Snake care and husbandry. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice 7:2 pp. 421-446.

[[Category:Snake_Husbandry]]

Snake Feeding and Digestion

2010-05-11T16:24:32Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
All snakes are carnivores. With over 2900 different species, some snakes have highly [[Snake Diet|specialised diets]] (eggs, lizards, frogs, fish, fish eggs or invertebrates such as slugs or termites) while others are generalists and will eat a wide variety of prey items. Common pet snakes such as rat snakes, milk snakes boas and [[Royal Python|pythons]] typically feed on rodents but some pet and many exhibition snakes require [[Snake Diet|special diets]]. It is therefore necessary to have species-specific information to determine the most appropriate prey.

The gastrointestinal tract of the snake is simple and relatively short compared with other reptiles. Because of this comparative physiology, it it vital that these animals are given a high quality diet in captivity to maximise absorption of essential nutrients.

* '''Find out information on the''' [[Snake Digestive System]].

* '''Find out more about how the snake head is adapted to ingest whole prey in the''' [[Snake Musculoskeletal System]].

==Size and type of prey==
* The size of the prey can be about the same diameter as the snake's head.
The feeding of whole prey is similar to a snake's diet in the wild. The feeding of pieces of prey (e.g. fish off-cuts to [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]]) can lead to diet related diseases. In general, since snakes eat whole animals, nutritional problems are relatively uncommon.
* Aquatic species usually prefer fish and amphibian prey items.
* Arboreal snakes usually prefer avian and reptilian prey items.
* Terrestrial snakes will readily accept different prey items.
* Find out more information on [[Snake Diet|specific snake diets]].
==Frequency of feeding==
[[Image:Snake_eating_mouse_ed.jpg|250px|thumb|right|© RVC]]
* Young, growing snakes may require food every 2 to 3 days.
* Active snakes such as garter snakes require several feeds per week.
*Small adult snakes may eat weekly or more often.
* Giant snakes may only eat 4 to 6 times yearly.
* Snakes may not feed during [[Snake Shedding|ecdydsis]].
* Some snakes do not feed during the breeding season.
* Potential aetiologies for anorexia in snakes that can be hard to acclimate to captivity include inappropriate prey type or size (see [[Snake Diet|diets]]), inappropriate environmental temperatures (see [[Snake Housing|housing]]), dehydration, and chronic [[:Category:Snake Diseases|disease]].

'''[[Royal Python|Royal python]]'''
* Environmental cues can be important for feeding. A royal python is far more likely to eat a rodent that is similar in colour to agouti coloured free-living rodents. In captivity these snakes are often offered albino or fancy coloured mice rather than appropriately coloured prey and therefore do not receive the visual cues to eat.

'''[[Garter Snake|Garter snake]]'''
* The presence of thiaminases in frozen fish can lead to clinical disease in fish-eating snakes, such as [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]].
==Preparation of food==
Care of the prey item prior to feeding is important since nutritional deficiencies in the snake may occur if the animal being fed has been kept on an inappropriate diet. Similarly, if poor husbandry of prey items is practiced then they may serve as reservoirs for disease. Prey rodents should not have been treated with topical parasiticides e.g. permethrins, within three weeks of being offered to a snake (the dealer can confirm this). In addition, prey should not have been administered drugs such as antimicrobials and euthanasia compounds. In zoological institutions prey is often frozen at 0°C as a method of food preservation.

Snakes are heavily reliant on olfactory cues when hunting (see [[Snake Special Senses|snake special senses]], pet owners may be encouraged to "scent" a mouse or rat by rubbing an atypical prey species to stimulate feeding.
==Feeding live prey==
Food items should be humanely euthanised using carbon dioxide or cervical dislocation. Because snakes hunt using olfactory senses, they can be easily trained to accept euthanised prey. It is not recommended to feed live prey for several reasons:
# Excessive stress to the prey because of the environment.
# Injuries to the snake from the prey.
# Illegal in the U.K.
==Obesity==
In general, snakes are overfed in captivity and it is not uncommon to be presented with an obese animal in practice. To prevent obesity, snakes should be regularly weighed and measured, and a body condition score determined. See [[Snake Physical Examination|snake physical examination]].
==Water==
Snakes derive a significant amount of water from their prey. Many species will also drink from standing water, therefore a large water basin that provides an additional soaking area is recommended. Soaking can help facilitate [[Ecdysis|shedding]] and stimulate the gastrointestinal tract.
==References==
Fowler, M.E. and Miller, R.E. (2003). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Saunders, 5th Edition. pp. 84. ISBN 0-7216-9499-3

Mitchell, M.A. (2004). Snake care and husbandry. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice 7:2 pp. 421-446.

[[Category:Snake_Husbandry]]

Snake Feeding and Digestion

2010-05-11T16:24:10Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
All snakes are carnivores. With over 2900 different species, some snakes have highly [[Snake Diet|specialised diets]] (eggs, lizards, frogs, fish, fish eggs or invertebrates such as slugs or termites) while others are generalists and will eat a wide variety of prey items. Common pet snakes such as rat snakes, milk snakes boas and [[Royal Python|pythons]] typically feed on rodents but some pet and many exhibition snakes require [[Snake Diet|special diets]]. It is therefore necessary to have species-specific information to determine the most appropriate prey.

The gastrointestinal tract of the snake is simple and relatively short compared with other reptiles. Because of this comparative physiology, it it vital that these animals are given a high quality diet in captivity to maximise absorption of essential nutrients.

* Find out information on the''' [[Snake Digestive System]].

* Find out more about how the snake head is adapted to ingest whole prey in the''' [[Snake Musculoskeletal System]].

==Size and type of prey==
* The size of the prey can be about the same diameter as the snake's head.
The feeding of whole prey is similar to a snake's diet in the wild. The feeding of pieces of prey (e.g. fish off-cuts to [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]]) can lead to diet related diseases. In general, since snakes eat whole animals, nutritional problems are relatively uncommon.
* Aquatic species usually prefer fish and amphibian prey items.
* Arboreal snakes usually prefer avian and reptilian prey items.
* Terrestrial snakes will readily accept different prey items.
* Find out more information on [[Snake Diet|specific snake diets]].
==Frequency of feeding==
[[Image:Snake_eating_mouse_ed.jpg|250px|thumb|right|© RVC]]
* Young, growing snakes may require food every 2 to 3 days.
* Active snakes such as garter snakes require several feeds per week.
*Small adult snakes may eat weekly or more often.
* Giant snakes may only eat 4 to 6 times yearly.
* Snakes may not feed during [[Snake Shedding|ecdydsis]].
* Some snakes do not feed during the breeding season.
* Potential aetiologies for anorexia in snakes that can be hard to acclimate to captivity include inappropriate prey type or size (see [[Snake Diet|diets]]), inappropriate environmental temperatures (see [[Snake Housing|housing]]), dehydration, and chronic [[:Category:Snake Diseases|disease]].

'''[[Royal Python|Royal python]]'''
* Environmental cues can be important for feeding. A royal python is far more likely to eat a rodent that is similar in colour to agouti coloured free-living rodents. In captivity these snakes are often offered albino or fancy coloured mice rather than appropriately coloured prey and therefore do not receive the visual cues to eat.

'''[[Garter Snake|Garter snake]]'''
* The presence of thiaminases in frozen fish can lead to clinical disease in fish-eating snakes, such as [[Garter Snake|garter snakes]].
==Preparation of food==
Care of the prey item prior to feeding is important since nutritional deficiencies in the snake may occur if the animal being fed has been kept on an inappropriate diet. Similarly, if poor husbandry of prey items is practiced then they may serve as reservoirs for disease. Prey rodents should not have been treated with topical parasiticides e.g. permethrins, within three weeks of being offered to a snake (the dealer can confirm this). In addition, prey should not have been administered drugs such as antimicrobials and euthanasia compounds. In zoological institutions prey is often frozen at 0°C as a method of food preservation.

Snakes are heavily reliant on olfactory cues when hunting (see [[Snake Special Senses|snake special senses]], pet owners may be encouraged to "scent" a mouse or rat by rubbing an atypical prey species to stimulate feeding.
==Feeding live prey==
Food items should be humanely euthanised using carbon dioxide or cervical dislocation. Because snakes hunt using olfactory senses, they can be easily trained to accept euthanised prey. It is not recommended to feed live prey for several reasons:
# Excessive stress to the prey because of the environment.
# Injuries to the snake from the prey.
# Illegal in the U.K.
==Obesity==
In general, snakes are overfed in captivity and it is not uncommon to be presented with an obese animal in practice. To prevent obesity, snakes should be regularly weighed and measured, and a body condition score determined. See [[Snake Physical Examination|snake physical examination]].
==Water==
Snakes derive a significant amount of water from their prey. Many species will also drink from standing water, therefore a large water basin that provides an additional soaking area is recommended. Soaking can help facilitate [[Ecdysis|shedding]] and stimulate the gastrointestinal tract.
==References==
Fowler, M.E. and Miller, R.E. (2003). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Saunders, 5th Edition. pp. 84. ISBN 0-7216-9499-3

Mitchell, M.A. (2004). Snake care and husbandry. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice 7:2 pp. 421-446.

[[Category:Snake_Husbandry]]

Snake Diet

2010-05-11T16:21:40Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
The best captive diets reflect what the free-living animal feeds on in their natural environment. However the natural prey may not be available. The following is a guide for the diet of some types of snakes.

* '''For information on reptile diets and food composition, see''' [[Lizard Diet|here]].

{|border="2" width="600px" align="center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" rules="all" style="margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:solid 1px #AAAAAA; border-collapse:collapse;empty-cells:show"
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2" width="180px"|Family
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2"|Species
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2"|Adults
!bgcolor="#A7c1F2"|Juvenile
|-
!align="left"|Acrochordidae
|Elephant trunk snake
|fish
| -
|-
!align="left"|Anomalepididae
|Blind snakes
|arthropods
| -
|-
!align="left"|Boidae
|Burmese python
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Carpet python
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Diamond python
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Reticulated python
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Royal python
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Blood python
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Rock python
|mammals, birds
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Green tree python
|mammals, birds
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Anaconda
|fish, mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Boa constrictor
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Dumeril's boa
|mammals, birds
|
|-
!align="left"|
|Tree boa
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Solomon Island boa
|lizards, mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Rubber boa
|lizards, mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Amazon boa
|mammals, birds
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Emerald boa
|mammals, birds
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Annulated tree boa
|mammals, birds
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Rainbow boa
|mammals, birds
|fish, amphibians
|-
!align="left"|
|Sand Boas
|mammals
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Rosy Boas
|mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|Colubridae
|Ribbon Garter
|fish, amphibians, mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Glossy
|lizards, mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Hognose
|amphibians, mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Indigo
|fish, mammals, birds
|amphibians, lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Long-nosed
|lizards, mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Madagascan hognose
|mammals, birds
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Milksnakes
|mammals
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Racers
|mammals, birds
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Ratsnakes
|mammals, birds
|amphibians, lizards
|-
!align="left"|Elapidae
|Most cobras
|mammals, birds
|
|-
!align="left"|
|King cobra
|snakes, mammals
|
|-
!align="left"|
|Kraits
|mammals, birds
|
|-
!align="left"|Loxocemidae
|Mexican burrowing python
|mammals
|amphibians, lizards
|-
!align="left"|Uropeltidae
|Short-tail snakes
|arthropods
|
|-
!align="left"|Viperidae
|Cottonmouth
|fish, mammals, birds
|amphibians
|-
!align="left"|
|Rattlesnakes
|mammals, birds
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Calloselasma ''spp.''
|mammals, birds
|amphibians, lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Bolthriechis ''spp.''
|mammals, birds
|amphibians, lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Bothriopis ''spp.''
|mammals, birds
|amphibians, lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|Sawscale vipers
|arthropods, mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Horned vipers
|lizards, mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|Sand vipers
|lizards, mammals
| -
|-
!align="left"|
|''Atheris spp.''
|mammals, birds
|lizards
|-
!align="left"|
|''Bitis spp.''
|''Vipera spp,''
|lizards
|-
[[Category:Snake_Husbandry]]

Lizard and Snake Quarantine

2010-05-11T16:15:44Z

Cporteous:

{{review}}
Many owners fail to appreciate the importance of preventive medicine and the role of the veterinary surgeon as part of it. A preventive medicine program is an important part of sound husbandry practice. This is especially important in exhibitions where larger numbers are kept although it is still important for the pet owner with only one or two reptiles.

==Why?==
*Prevention = simple, low tech, cheap
*Treatment = complex, high tech, expensive

==Stock selection==
It is important to start with physically healthy (and hopefully genetically sound) animals and know their species-specific ([[:Category:Lizard Species|lizard]] and [[:Category:Snake Species|snake]] requirements. Appropriate identification is necessary, especially for reproduction.
* '''For more information on lizard reproduction,''' [[Lizard Reproduction|see here]].
* '''For more information on snake reproduction,''' [[Snake Reproductive System|see here]].

==Quarantine==
A quarantine program for newly acquired animals is essential to assess their health and prevent the spread of any subclinical disease. A quarantine area can also be set up for sick animals.
===How long?===
Quarantine should be advised for between 90 and 180 days before introducing a reptile into a reptile collection. All new lizards and snakes should enter and leave the quarantine room at the same time. Note that even a 90 day quarantine may be insufficient time to detect some viral or bacterial diseases where a reptile can be a latent carrier or has subclinical symptoms.

===Where?===
The quarantine room should at a distance from the main collection and there should be no air exchange between them. Once anyone has entered the quarantine area they should not enter the area where the others are kept.
===Procedures===
*Upon entering quarantine lizards and snakes should be identified and measurements taken, including weight and snout to [[Vent|vent]] length. [[Lizard and Snake Taking a History|Take a history of the animal]].
*Daily observation to identify any problems (anatomical and [[Lizard Behaviour|behavioural]]).
*Physical examination by a veterinary surgeon (see [[Lizard Physical Examination|lizard exam]] and [[Snake Physical Examination|snake exams]]).
*Faecal examination - most wild snakes have parasites.
*[[Lizard and Snake Haematology|Haematology]] and [[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|biochemistry]] to establish a minimum data base.
*Serology if thought appropriate e.g. [[Ophidian Paramyxovirus|ophidian paramyxovirus (OPMV)]].

==Veterinary involvement==
Veterinary involvement in a preventive medicine program should include regular screening as well as disease investigation. Regular screening can include annual physical examinations, [[Lizard and Snake Haematology|haematology]] and [[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|biochemical tests]], faecal tests and other tests as deemed necessary. Regular screening of prey for infectious disease is also worthwhile considering. Disease investigation includes examinations as necessary and necropsies. Isolation of any infectious organism can be used for autogenous vaccination production.

* '''For more information on giving physical examinations, see''' [[Lizard Physical Examination]] '''and''' [[Snake Physical Examination]].
* '''For more information on diagnostic aids, see''' [[:Category:Lizard Diagnostics]] '''and''' [[:Category:Snake Diagnostics]].
* '''For more information on post mortems, see''' [[Lizard Necropsy|Lizard Necropsy]] '''and''' [[Snake Necropsy]].

[[Category:Lizard_Husbandry|Q]][[Category:Snake_Husbandry|Q]]