WikiVet English - User contributions [en]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-10-03T09:50:28Z

Fiorecastro:

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div style="margin-top:10px;">[[File:Ulitimate CPDCE Course - Leaderboard Banner - 728 x 90px (1).gif|728x728px|[|alt=banner image]]
<br/>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses/ultimate-veterinary-ce-course-race-approved?fpr=accounts34 Ultimate Veterinary CE Course (RACE Approved)]<p></p>
</div>
Check out our latest VetChat - https://youtu.be/0YwPB2v-H1g?si=aI3-rmYW-OKuABtn

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Podcasts ==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-10-03T09:48:16Z

Fiorecastro:

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div style="margin-top:10px;">[[File:Ulitimate CPDCE Course - Leaderboard Banner - 728 x 90px (1).gif|728x728px|[|alt=banner image]]
<br/>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses/ultimate-veterinary-ce-course-race-approved?fpr=accounts34 Ultimate Veterinary CE Course (RACE Approved)]<p></p>
</div>
Check out our latest <a href="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0YwPB2v-H1g?si=ynucyRDi1uR5qLHS">VetChat</a>

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Podcasts ==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-10-03T09:38:15Z

Fiorecastro:

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div style="margin-top:10px;">[[File:Ulitimate CPDCE Course - Leaderboard Banner - 728 x 90px (1).gif|728x728px|[|alt=banner image]]
<br/>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses/ultimate-veterinary-ce-course-race-approved?fpr=accounts34 Ultimate Veterinary CE Course (RACE Approved)]<p></p>
</div>
{{#tag:iframe|level="www"|path="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0YwPB2v-H1g?si=ynucyRDi1uR5qLHS"}}
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Podcasts ==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-10-03T09:20:02Z

Fiorecastro: added iframe

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div style="margin-top:10px;">[[File:Ulitimate CPDCE Course - Leaderboard Banner - 728 x 90px (1).gif|728x728px|[|alt=banner image]]
<br/>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses/ultimate-veterinary-ce-course-race-approved?fpr=accounts34 Ultimate Veterinary CE Course (RACE Approved)]<p></p>
</div><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0YwPB2v-H1g?si=ynucyRDi1uR5qLHS" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" allowfullscreen></iframe><div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Podcasts ==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Talk:Veterinary Education Online

2025-09-30T11:34:24Z

Fiorecastro: Protected "Talk:Veterinary Education Online" ([Edit=Allow only administrators] (indefinite) [Move=Allow only administrators] (indefinite)) [cascading]

Talk:Frequently Asked Questions

2025-09-30T11:20:27Z

Fiorecastro: Blanked the page

Veterinary Education Online

2025-09-30T11:16:41Z

Fiorecastro:

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div style="margin-top:10px;">[[File:Ulitimate CPDCE Course - Leaderboard Banner - 728 x 90px (1).gif|728x728px|[|alt=banner image]]
<br/>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses/ultimate-veterinary-ce-course-race-approved?fpr=accounts34 Ultimate Veterinary CE Course (RACE Approved)]<p></p>
</div>

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Podcasts ==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-09-30T11:15:25Z

Fiorecastro: Added new image and link

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div style="margin-top:10px;">[[File:Ulitimate CPDCE Course - Leaderboard Banner - 728 x 90px (1).gif|728x728px|[|alt=]]
[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses/ultimate-veterinary-ce-course-race-approved?fpr=accounts34 Ultimate Veterinary CE Course (RACE Approved)]<p></p>
</div>

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Podcasts ==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Talk:Veterinary Education Online

2025-09-30T11:13:16Z

Fiorecastro: Blanked the page

Veterinary Education Online

2025-09-30T11:10:43Z

Fiorecastro: added new banner

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div style="margin-top:10px;">[[File:Ulitimate CPDCE Course - Leaderboard Banner - 728 x 90px (1).gif|728x728px|[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses/ultimate-veterinary-ce-course-race-approved?fpr=accounts34 Ultimate Veterinary CE Course]]]</div>

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Podcasts==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

File:Ulitimate CPDCE Course - Leaderboard Banner - 728 x 90px (1).gif

2025-09-30T11:06:44Z

Fiorecastro:

Leaderboard banner

Talk:Veterinary Education Online

2025-09-15T10:14:41Z

Fiorecastro: Reverted edits by Autosuknet (talk) to last revision by ACann

Veterinary Education Online

2025-06-10T09:33:06Z

Fiorecastro:

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div style="margin-top:10px;">
[[File:Ever Clean Banner - 728 x 90px.jpg|728x728px]]
</div>

[https://thewebinarvet.com/webinars/senior-cats-aged-to-purrfection Senior Cats; Aged To Purrfection!]

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Podcasts==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-06-10T09:29:51Z

Fiorecastro: Added space above banner

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>
[[File:Ever Clean Banner - 728 x 90px.jpg|left|728x728px]]

[https://thewebinarvet.com/webinars/senior-cats-aged-to-purrfection Senior Cats; Aged To Purrfection!]

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Podcasts==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-06-10T09:28:40Z

Fiorecastro: Added new image and link

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>
[[File:Ever Clean Banner - 728 x 90px.jpg|left|728x728px]]

[https://thewebinarvet.com/webinars/senior-cats-aged-to-purrfection Senior Cats; Aged To Purrfection!]

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Podcasts==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

File:Ever Clean Banner - 728 x 90px.jpg

2025-06-10T09:26:31Z

Fiorecastro:

Ever Clean Banner

Veterinary Education Online

2025-06-09T14:13:06Z

Fiorecastro:

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

[[File:AC 5975 200 ProAtop AurisProduct 320x50px.gif|alt=]]

[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/the-skin-microbiome-dysbiosis-cause-and-effect The skin microbiome dysbiosis cause and effect]
<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Podcasts==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-06-09T14:09:43Z

Fiorecastro:

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

[[File:AC 5975 200 ProAtop AurisProduct 320x50px.gif|alt=]]

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Podcasts==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Veterinary Education Online

2025-06-09T14:08:29Z

Fiorecastro: Added banner to home page

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

[[File:AC 5975 200 ProAtop AurisProduct 320x50px.gif]]

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
==Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

==Upcoming Veterinary Events==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

==Veterinary Courses==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Podcasts==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

File:AC 5975 200 ProAtop AurisProduct 320x50px.gif

2025-06-09T14:03:42Z

Fiorecastro:

ProAtop AurisProduct banner

Veterinary Education Online

2025-06-09T13:38:39Z

Fiorecastro: Removed student intro text as no longer needed

__NOTOC__
<templatestyles src="Main Page/styles.css" />
<div id="mp-topbanner" class="mp-bordered">
<div id="mp-welcomecount">
<div id="mp-welcome">Welcome to [[Main Page|WikiVet]],</div>
<div id="mp-free">Free [[WikiVet Introduction|veterinary encyclopedia]]. [[Frequently_Asked_Questions#How_do_I_edit_content|Submissions welcome]]<br>and are reviewed by renowned veterinary professionals.</div>
<div id="articlecount">[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English</div>
</div>
<ul id="mp-portals">
<li>[[CPD Events]]</li>
<li class="portal-vmid">[[Discipline]]s</li>
<li class="portal-vbot">[[Learning Resources|Learning]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid">[[Lectures]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vmid">[[Podcasts]]</li>
<li class="portal-hmid portal-vbot">[[Species]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright">[[System]]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vmid">[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=webinars Webinars]</li>
<li class="portal-hright portal-vbot">[[Video]]s</li>
</ul>
</div>

<div class="MainPageBG" style="border:1px solid #5B9DA7; background:#f5faff; color:#000; padding:0 14px 8px; margin-top:7px;">
== Explore Over 3,000 Veterinary Webinars ==

Elevate your veterinary expertise with The Webinar Vet. Explore over 30 specialised veterinary fields, including:

''<small>Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Antimicrobial Resistance, Behaviour, Cardiology, Clinical Anatomy, Clinical Pathology, Dentistry, Dermatology, Diagnostic Imaging, Emergency and Critical Care, Endocrinology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Herd Health, Infection Control and Biosecurity, Internal Medicine, Neurology, Oncology, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Parasitology, Personal Development and Wellbeing, Pharmacology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Respiratory, Soft Tissue Surgery, Surgery, Sustainability, Urogenital and Reproduction, Welfare and Ethics, Wound Management, and Youngstock.</small>''

Sign up today to take advantage of our discounted student membership, giving you unlimited access to expert knowledge across all these areas.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=videos View Webinars]</u></big>'''

== Upcoming Veterinary Events ==

Explore our comprehensive selection of online veterinary events, including live webinars and on-demand sessions. Enhance your professional skills and knowledge at your convenience.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/events?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=events View Veterinary Events]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Courses ==

Unlock your potential with our comprehensive veterinary courses designed to help you excel in your field. Whether you're looking to deepen your knowledge or expand your skillset, our expert-led courses cover a wide range of topics to support your professional growth.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/courses?utm_source=wikivet&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=courses Veterinary Courses]</u></big>'''

== Veterinary Podcasts ==

Tune in to the #1 veterinary podcast in Europe, where we explore the latest insights, trends, and expert advice across the veterinary world. With new episodes released every week, there's always something fresh to discover.

'''<big><u>[https://thewebinarvet.com/videos/category/podcast Visit VETchat]</u></big>'''

</div>

[[es:Página Principal]]
[[fr:Accueil]]

Snake Neurological System

2023-01-09T14:46:16Z

Fiorecastro:

[[Image:Albino_Naja_haje_ed.jpg|300px|thumb|right|(Copyright © RVC)]]
Snakes have a typical reptilian nervous system.
==Brain==
The brain is elongate and consists of forebrain (telencephalon and diencephalon) and brain stem (midbrain and hindbrain). The most significant difference to mammals and birds is the presence of the dorsal ventricular ridge in the telencephalon. The auditory portion of the midbrain appears better developed than would be expected. The tangential vestibular nucleus is well developed. The optic lobes of the midbrain receive primary input from the [[Snake Eye|eye]] and secondarily from [[Snake Special Senses|olfactory and auditory centres]]. The medulla of the hindbrain is better developed than that of lizards and partially encloses the large fourth ventricle. There is no true subarachnoid space in reptiles, which is an important consideration if attempting to collect cerebrospinal fluid.

==Spinal cord==
The spinal cord extends the length of the vertebral column to the tip of the tail and gives rise to dorsal (sensory) and ventral (motor) roots at each vertebral segment. The sympathetic fibres are not distinct from spinal nerves in the trunk. There are locomotor centres in the spinal cord. Recovery from spinal cord injury may therefore a better prognosis in reptiles than in mammals.

{{review}}

[[Category:Snake_Anatomy]]

Oesophageal Groove

2023-01-09T14:45:28Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==

The oesophageal groove is present in newborn ruminants. It is a channel taking milk from the [[Oesophagus - Anatomy & Physiology|oesophagus]] into the [[Abomasum - Anatomy & Physiology|abomasum]], bypassing the [[Rumen - Anatomy & Physiology|rumen]], [[Reticulum - Anatomy & Physiology|reticulum]] and [[Omasum - Anatomy & Physiology|omasum]].
[[Image:Calf Suckling.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Calf suckling'' <Br> David Monniaux 2005, WikiMedia Commons]]

==Formation of the Groove==

The groove is formed by posture of the animal lifting its head to suckle. Calcium ions are obtained from the milk. A teat or teat-shaped experience aids the formation. The formation of the groove can be overridden, e.g. bucket feeding calves.

==Groove Closure==

It is an unconditioned reflex when the animal is eager for milk. Water consumption does not usually initiate groove closure. The age when the [[Rumen - Anatomy & Physiology|rumen]] becomes fully functional and the oseophageal groove closes differs between ruminants; In calves 20 weeks, in lambs 8 weeks, in deer 16 weeks and in goats 12 weeks. It closes by reflex stimulation of the cranial laryngeal branch of the '''vagus nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN X]]) (takes 2-5 seconds). With time it becomes a conditioned reflex. The closure consists of two movements, the lips of the groove become firmly opposed and shorten and the lips become inverted and twisted around the axis of the right lip of the groove, drawing the reticular mucosa over the right lip.

==Function in the Adult Ruminant==

The groove is stimulated in adult ruminants by ADH. The groove can also be closed in adult ruminants by the administration of drugs, e.g copper sulphate, which is of use to prevent drugs becoming diluted in the forechambers. Instead, it directs the drugs directly to the [[Abomasum - Anatomy & Physiology|abomasum]].

==Histology==

The floor of the groove is smooth and pale lined with stratified squamous epithelium.

{{Template:Learning
|flashcards = [[Oesophageal Groove Flashcards]]
|OVAM = [http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/goat-gastric-groove Image - Goat Oesophageal Groove]
}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/herd-health/webinars/feed</rss>
[[Category:Stomach - Anatomy & Physiology]]
[[Category:A&P Done]]
[[Category:Alimentary Anatomy - Cattle]]

Pleural Cavity and Membranes - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:44:49Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==

The surface of the inner wall of all of the body cavities is lined by a serous membrane which consists of a single layer of flat epithelium with a thin underlying propria (connective tissue). Within the thoracic cavity, this is known as the ''pleura''. The '''visceral pleura''' which coats the outer surface of the lung is derived from the ''splanchnic mesoderm''. The '''parietal pleura''' lining the thoracic cavity is derived from '''somatic mesoderm'''. The '''pleural cavity''' is a potential space between the two areas of pleural membrane, which normally are adhesed to each other.

==Pleural Membranes==
===Structure of the Pleural Membranes===
[[Image:PleuralMembranesSchematic.jpg|right|thumb|350px|'''Schematic Diagram of the Pleural Membranes''' (Cross section through thoracic cavity at the level of the heart)]]

Each [[Lungs - Anatomy & Physiology|lung]] is placed within a separate layer of membrane, thus there are two pleural sacs. The space between the two sacs is known as the [[Mediastinum - Anatomy & Physiology|mediastinum]], and is almost in the midline of the thorax. The pleura covering the surface of the lung is known as '''pulmonary pleura''' or '''visceral pleura'''. This becomes continuous with the '''mediastinal pleura''', as it wraps around the [[Lungs - Anatomy & Physiology|lung]]. The '''diaphragmatic''' and '''costal pleura''' are continuous with the mediastinal pleura. Together, these three membranes are the '''parietal pleura'''.

Between the parietal and visceral pleura is the '''intrapleural space''', or '''pleural cavity'''. This contains a small amount of serous fluid which establishes adhesion between the layers and allows smooth movement between the lung and chest wall, and between individual lobes of the [[Lungs - Anatomy & Physiology|lungs]]. The [[Heart - Anatomy & Physiology|heart]] is invested in a parietal and visceral layer of [[Heart Structure - Anatomy & Physiology#Pericardium|'''pericardium''']] with the '''pericardial space''' separating the two membranes. Cranially, the costal and mediastinal pleura adjoin to form a 'dome' of pleura which extends to the thoracic inlet. This is known as the '''cupulae pleurae'''. This region is only protected by soft tissue, and thus is vulnerable to injury.

Within the pleural sac encasing the right [[Lungs - Anatomy & Physiology|lung]], there is a fold which encases the vena cava. It is known as the '''Plica Venae Cavae'''. The pleural membranes are larger than the [[Lungs - Anatomy & Physiology|lungs]] which they encase, thus there are areas where the facing surfaces of parietal pleura touch each other. These are known as '''pleural recesses'''. One example is the '''costodiaphragmatic recess''', the space between the costal and diaphragmatic pleura. The volume of the recess varies to a point due to the phase of [[Ventilation - Anatomy & Physiology#Inspiration|inspiration]]/[[Ventilation - Anatomy & Physiology#Expiration|expiration]].

===Pleural Membrane Function===

The Pleural Cavity is filled with a small amount of serous fluid which forms a thin film of liquid between the pleural layers. This is vital in that it prevents separation of the two pleural layers and lubricates the surface, so the [[Lungs - Anatomy & Physiology|lungs]] can move easily within the thoracic cavity. The pleural fluid also provides surface tension, keeping the lung suitably close to the wall of the thorax, despite the lungs not being directly fixed to it. The pleurae thus allow the volume of the [[Lungs - Anatomy & Physiology|lungs]] to change with the volume of the thoracic cavity, enabling [[Ventilation - Anatomy & Physiology|ventilation]]. The left and right pleural sacs are separate so that in the event of one being punctured, the other lung can continue to function effectively.

==Vasculature==

The pleural membranes are supplied by the '''bronchial''' and '''pulmonary arteries'''.

==Innervation==

'''Parietal Pleura''' is innervated by the intercostal nerves, with the mediastinal and diaphragmatic pleura also innervated by the phrenic nerve. '''Visceral pleura''' is innervated by the vagus nerve and sympathetic fibres. It is insensitive to pain stimuli.

==Species Differences==
[[Image:Dogthorax1.jpg|right|thumb|350px|''The mediastinum is visible in this dog dissection, left lung removed. ©RVC 2008]]
In '''cattle''', the [[Mediastinum - Anatomy & Physiology|mediastinum]] is a tough membrane, in contrast to '''horses, dogs''' and '''cats''' where it is rather thin and more delicate.

'''Birds''' do not have a pleural cavity as [[Avian Respiration - Anatomy & Physiology|avian lungs]] do not have the capacity to inflate. The [[Respiration in Non-Homeotherms - Anatomy & Physiology|respiratory systems of non-homeotherms]] are also very different to that of mammals.

==Links==

Click here for information on [[:Category:Pleural Cavity and Membranes - Pathology|pathology of pleural cavity membranes]].

{{Template:Learning
|powerpoints = [[Respiratory System Histology resource|Histology of the respiratory system, including the pleural membranes]]
}}

==References==

{{citation|initiallast = Dyce|initialfirst = K.M|2last = Sack|2first = W.O|finallast = Wensing|finalfirst = C.J.G|year = 2002|title = Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy|ed =3rd|city = Philadelphia|pub = Saunders}}

{{citation|initiallast = Budras|initialfirst = K.D|2last = McCarthy|2first = P.H|3last = Fricke|3first = W|finallast = Richter|finalfirst = R|year = 2002|title = Anatomy of the Dog|ed =4th|city = Hannover|pub = Schlutersche GmbH & Co. KG, Verlag und Druckerei}}

{{review}}
==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/respiratory/webinars/feed</rss>
[[Category:Respiratory System - Anatomy & Physiology]]
[[Category:A&P Done]]

Mouse Biochemistry

2023-01-09T14:44:12Z

Fiorecastro:

{|border="2" width="700px" align="center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" rules="all" style="margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:solid 1px #AAAAAA; border-collapse:collapse;empty-cells:show"
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2" width="180px"|Serum Type
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2"|Units
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2"|Normal Ranges
|-
!colspan="3" bgcolor="#DBDBDB"|INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI) UNITS
|-
!align="left"|Albumin
|g/dL
|2.5 - 3.0
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Alkaline Phosphatase
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|u/L
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|35 - 96
|-
!align="left"|ALT
|u/L
|17 - 77
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|AST
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|u/L
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|54 - 298
|-
!align="left"|Bilirubin
|mg/dL
|8 - 33
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|BUN
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|mg/dL
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|8 - 33
|-
!align="left"|Calcium
|mg/dL
|7.1 - 10.1
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Creatinine
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|mg/dL
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|0.2 - 0.9
|-
!align="left"|Glucose
|g/dL
|62 - 175
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Phosphorus
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|mg/dL
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|5.7 - 9.2
|-
!align="left"|Total Protein
|g/dL
|3.5 - 7.2
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Sodium
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|mEq/L
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|140 - 160
|-
!align="left"|Potassium
|mEq/L
|5.0 - 7.5
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Chloride
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|mEq/L
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|88 - 110
|-
|}
==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/clinical-pathology/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Biochemistry Reference Ranges]]
[[Category:WikiNormals]]

Planes and Axes - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:42:52Z

Fiorecastro:

<br>
[[Image:anatomical planes.jpg|center|550px|Anatomica Planes of a Kangaroo - Wikimedia Commons 2008]]

==Anatomical directions==

*Dorsal: Toward the spine
*Ventral: Toward the sternum
*Medial: Toward central line
*Lateral: Away from central line
*Cranial: Toward the head
*Caudal: Toward the tail
*Rostral: Toward the nose (beak)
*Proximal: Toward the body (trunk)
*Distal: Away from the body

==Anatomical Planes==

*Dorsal Plane: Parallel to the back
*Transverse Plane: Perpendicular to the long axis of the body
*Sagittal: Dividing the body to right and left parts
*Median: Sagittal section on midline dividing into right and left halves

==Actions and Directions==

*Extension: Increasing the angle of a joint
*Flexion: Decreasing the angle of a joint
*Abduction: Movement away from the body
*Adduction: Movement toward the body
*Pronate: Rotation of the limb to move the dorsal manus medially
*Supinate: Rotation of the limb to move the dorsal manus laterally

[[Category:Anatomy and Physiology]]

Chicken Physiology - WikiNormals

2023-01-09T14:41:49Z

Fiorecastro:

<br>
{|border="2" width="500px" align="center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" rules="all" style="margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:solid 1px #AAAAAA; border-collapse:collapse;empty-cells:show"
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2" width="180px"|Physiology
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2"|Units
!bgcolor="#A7C1F2"|Approximate Value
|-
!colspan="3" bgcolor="#DBDBDB"|Chick
|-
!align="left"|Heart Rate
|Beats per min
|350 - 450
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Birth Weight
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Grams
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|50 - 70
|-
!colspan="3" bgcolor="#DBDBDB"|Chicken
|-
!align="left"|Adult Weight
|Kilograms
|1.5 - 3
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Blood Volume
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Milli-litres per Kg
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|60 - 90
|-
!align="left"|Food Consumption
|Grams per day
|85 - 115
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Gestation Length
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Days
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|21 Days (Egg incubation)
|-
!align="left"|Heart Rate
|Beats per min
|200 - 400
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Rectal Temperature
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Centigrade
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|40.5 - 42
|-
!align="left"|Respiratory Rate
|Breaths per min
|15 - 30
|-
!align="left" bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Water Consumption
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|
|bgcolor="#F2F2F2"|Ad libitum
|-
|}

{{toplink
|linkpage =WikiNormals
|linktext =WikiNormals

|pagetype =WikiNormals
|sublink1= Avian Section - WikiNormals
|subtext1= Avian Section
}}
==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/internal-medicine/webinars/feed</rss>

Horn - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:40:40Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==
The keratin in the [[Skin - Anatomy & Physiology#Epidermis|epidermis]], when cornified and thickened, is referred to as '''horn'''. Horn is particulary resistant to mechanical and chemical damage. The [[Skin - Anatomy & Physiology#Dermis|dermis]] of horn gives the structures their 3-D structure and shape. Cattle, some sheep, goats and antelope posess horns and these are permanent organs. Breeds without horns are termed '''polled''' breeds. Deer posess '''antlers''', which are temporary organs that develop during the '''rutting season''' and are then shed.

==Horns==
Horns have a central, conical bony core or '''cornual process''' that grows out from the [[Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology#Frontal Bone|frontal bone]] of the skull. After 6 months of age, the bone becomes hollow and the space within it is continuous with the [[Paranasal Sinuses - Anatomy & Physiology|frontal sinuses]]. The surface of the bone is ridged and porous and is covered with papillated [[Skin - Anatomy & Physiology#dermis|dermis]] that is continuous with the periosteum and [[Skin - Anatomy & Physiology#epidermis|epidermis]] which keratinises and forms the protective covering of the horn. The substance of the horn is similar to that of the [[Hoof - Anatomy & Physiology|hoof]] and is a mixture of tubules and intertubular horn. The new horn produced at the base is soft and often transparent and resembles the [[Hoof - Anatomy & Physiology|periople]] of the hoof, giving the horn a glossy appearance.
[[image: Horns.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Horns are commonly observed in Highland cattle, as pictured here]]

In the neonate, the bone portion is very small, with a thin dermal and epidermal covering. Removal of this covering will prevent the horn from growing and thus remove the requirement for disbudding later in life.

If the skin covering the horn bud is not removed, the horn will continue to grow throughout the animal's life from the base, apically. Growth zones are visible with differing thickness of the keratin layer, relating to the nutritional status of the animal at that time.

The dermis of the horn is supplied by the '''cornual nerve''', which is a branch of the [[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|maxillary nerve]] ('''CN V'''). This nerve is often blocked to provide local anaesthesia in the disbudding or de-horning process.

The primary function of horns is to convey social hierarchy. The larger the horns, the higher up the social group the animal is. They also have a thermoregulatory roll in cattle and goats. When the ambient temperature increases, the blood flow through the dermis of the horn also increases, thus facilitating heat loss through radiation from the horn surface.

===Horn Procedures===
Horns may be a source of problem for animals, including avulsions and fractures. The usual management practice involves debudding and dehorning procedures for horned animals or selection of polled animals as they are easier to handle and manage. They also require less space in housing and transport along with many other benefits.

==Antlers==
'''Antlers''' are the usually large and complex horn-like appendages of most deer species, mostly present in males only, however, for some species such as caribou, are present in both sexes. They consist of bony outgrowths from the [[Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology|skull]] with no covering of keratin as is found in true horns. Each antler grows from an attachment point on the skull called a''' pedicle'''. While an antler is growing it is covered with highly vascular [[Skin - Anatomy & Physiology|skin]] called '''velvet''', which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone; once the antler has achieved its proper size, the velvet is lost and the antler's bone dies. This dead bone structure is the mature antler. Antlers shed after each mating season.

[[image: Antlers.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Antlers of a mature red deer, common to Scotland]]

As with horns, the primary function of antlers is to establish social hierarchy. The larger males will be more successful in securing a mate and passing on their genes to future generations.

Antlers also appear to act as large hearing aids. This effect was discovered by researchers George and Peter Bubenik and the findings were published in the European Journal of Wildlife in March 2008. Moose with antlers have far more sensitive hearing than moose without. The pair then studied trophy antlers with an artificial ear, confirming the discovery of the effects on hearing by acting as a parabolic reflector.

<br>

{{Learning
|flashcards = [[Horn flashcards - Anatomy & Physiology|Horn Flashcards]]
}}<br>

==Links==
[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/mar/21/medicalresearch.animalbehaviour Moose's sharp hearing is attributed to antlers, James Randerson, The Guardian, Friday 21 March 2008]

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/herd-health/webinars/feed</rss>
[[Category:Integumentary System - Anatomy & Physiology]][[Category:Image Review]]

Guttural Pouches - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:39:56Z

Fiorecastro:

[[Image:Equine Guttural Pouch.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Equine Guttural Pouch - Copyright David Bainbridge]]
Also known as: '''''Auditory Tube Diverticulum'''''

==Introduction==

The Guttural Pouch is present only in members of the order Perissodactyla (nonruminant ungulates: horses, tapirs, rhinoceros) and another small band of small mammals including Hyraxes, certain bats and a South American mouse.

The guttural pouches are paired ventral diverticulae of the eustachian (auditory) tubes, formed by escape of mucosal lining of the tube through a relatively long ventral slit in the supporting cartilages. The auditory tube connect the [[Nasal Cavity - Anatomy & Physiology|nasal cavity]] and [[Ear - Anatomy & Physiology#Middle Ear|middle ear]] and the diverticulum dilates to form pouches which can have a capacity of 300-500ml in the domestic horse. The pouches are normally air filled.

==Structure==

The Guttural Pouch is located below the cranial cavity, towards the caudal end of the [[Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology#Bones of the Skull|skull]]/wing of atlas. It is covered laterally by the Pterygoid muscles, [[Parotid Gland - Anatomy & Physiology|parotid]] and [[Mandibular Gland - Anatomy & Physiology|mandibular]] glands. The floor lies mainly on the [[Pharynx - Anatomy & Physiology|pharynx]] and beginning of the [[Oesophagus - Anatomy & Physiology|Oesophagus]]. The medial retropharyngeal lymph node lies between the pharynx and ventral wall of the pouches.

Right and left pouches are separated dorsomedially by rectus capitis ventralis and longus capitis muscles. Below this, by fused walls of the two pouches, the median septum is formed.

Each pouch is moulded to the stylohyoid bone which divides the medial and lateral compartments, the medial compartment being approximately double the size of the lateral one and extends further caudally and ventrally.

The guttural pouch has close association with many major structures including several [[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|cranial nerves]] (glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal), the sympathetic trunk and the external and internal carotid arteries. The pouch directly covers the temporohyoid joint. The pouch has an extremely thin wall which is lined by [[Respiratory Epithelium - Anatomy & Physiology|respiratory epithelium]] which secretes mucus. This normally drains into the pharynx when the horse is grazing.

Several cranial nerves and arteries lie directly against the pouch as they pass to and from foramina in the caudal part of the skull (vessels within mucosal folds that indent the pouches):

'''Medial Compartment''':
:Cranial nerves IX, X, XI, XII.
:Continuation of the sympathetic trunk beyond the cranial cervical ganglion.
:Internal carotid artery.

'''Lateral Compartment''':
:Cranial nerve VII - limited contact with the dorsal part of the compartment.
:External carotid artery crosses the lateral wall of the lateral compartment in its approach (as maxillary artery) to the atlas canal. The external maxillary vein is also visible.

Drainage:

Natural drainage of the pouch is throught the slit-like (pharyngeal) openings of the eustachian tube in the lateral wall of the nasopharynx. The connection opens when the horse swallows and grazing normally provides drainage. However, most of the pouch is ventral to his slit, and therefore drainage may be rather ineffective. If blocked, secretions accumulate and the pouch distends producing a palpable swelling.

== Function ==

The function of the guttural pouches has been shown with experimental data to participate in the rapid cooling of arterial blood destined for the brain and surrounding structures. In other words, the horse's guttural pouches are 'brain-cooling devices', cooling blood within the internal carotid arteries during [[hyperthermia]] that occurs during heavy exercise.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baptiste|first=Keith E.|last2=Naylor|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Bailey|first3=Jeremy|last4=Barber|first4=Ernest M.|last5=Post|first5=Klass|last6=Thornhill|first6=Jim|date=2000-02-01|title=Physiology - A function for guttural pouches in the horse|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12647122|journal=Nature|volume=403|issue=6768|pages=382–383|doi=10.1038/35000284|pmid=10667779|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2000Natur.403..382B}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baptiste|first=Keith E.|title=A preliminary study on the role of the equine guttural pouches in selective brain cooling|journal=The Veterinary Journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090023398800099?via%3Dihub|doi=10.1016/S1090-0233(98)80009-9}}</ref> However, this proven function has been called into question by another study that neither examined the guttural pouches nor the internal carotid arteries;<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Mitchell|first=Graham|last2=Fuller|first2=Andrea|last3=Maloney|first3=Shane K|last4=Rump|first4=Nicola|last5=Mitchell|first5=Duncan|date=2006-09-22|title=Guttural pouches, brain temperature and exercise in horses|journal=Biology Letters|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0469|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0469|pmc=1686210}}</ref> and others have argued that a cooling function would require an unattainable high rate of inspiratory air flow partly diverted into the guttural pouches.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Shane K. Maloney |author2=Andrea Fuller |author3=Graham Mitchell |author4=Duncan Mitchell |title=On the guttural pouch and selective brain cooling in equids: research letter |date=March 2002 |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=98 |issue=3 |hdl=10520/EJC97450 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The issue of necessary guttural pouch air flow rates, to provide rapid cooling of the internal carotid arteries, has been solved by further supporting evidence from microvascular studies of the guttural pouch mucosa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ninomiya |first=Hiroyoshi |last2=Kuwano |first2=Atsutoshi |title=Microvasculature of the Guttural Pouch Mucosa and Relationship With the Internal Carotid Artery in Horses |date=March 2019 |journal=Journal of Equine Veterinary Science |volume=74 |pages=84–89 |doi=10.1016/j.jevs.2018.12.025 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0737080618306981?via%3Dihub}}</ref> Many of the guttural pouch mucosal superficial arterioles and capillaries extend outwards, forming two types of vascular plexuses surrounding the internal carotid arteries: one with capillary bundles parallel to the internal carotid arteries in the outer layer of the tunica adventitia (outer peri-arterial plexus) and the other with vein-artery-vein triads within the inner layer of the tunica adventitia (inner peri-arterial plexus). These guttural pouch microvascular plexuses, engulfing the internal carotid arteries, are typical of [[countercurrent exchange|countercurrent]] heat exchangers recognised in other animal species, supporting the data that guttural pouches participate in selective brain cooling, even at lower air flow rates.

This completes the triad of internal carotid artery cooling that protects the horse's brain from [[hyperthermia]]. The triad including the function of guttural pouches achieving arterial cooling, via both by utilizing inspiratory air cooling as well as microvascular [[countercurrent exchange|countercurrent]] heat exchangers surrounding internal carotid arteries, and finally afterwards where the internal carotid arteries project upwards passing through the intracranial cavernous venous sinuses accepting cooled venous blood from the nasal sinuses.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=FF McConaghy |author2=JR Hales |author3=RJ Rose |author4=DR Hodgson |date=Dec 1995 |title=Selective brain cooling in the horse during exercise and environmental heat stress |journal=Journal of Applied Physiology |volume=79 |issue=6 |pages=1849-1854 |doi=10.1152/jappl.1995.79.6.1849 |url=https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/jappl.1995.79.6.1849}}</ref>

==Links==

[[:Category:Guttural Pouch - Pathology|pathology of guttural pouches]]

==References==

{{citation|initiallast = Dyce|initialfirst = K.M|2last = Sack|2first = W.O|finallast = Wensing|finalfirst = C.J.G|year = 2002|title = Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy|ed =3rd|city = Philadelphia|pub = Saunders}}

[[Category:Respiratory System - Anatomy & Physiology]][[Category:Horse - Respiratory System]]
[[Category:A&P Done]]

Motor Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:39:02Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==
[[File:Spinal_cord_tracts_-_English.png|thumb|right|450px|Spinal Cord Tracts]]
Motor pathways carry signals from the brain to [[Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology#Skeletal Muscle|skeletal muscle]] and [[Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology#Smooth_Muscle|smooth muscle]] such as those contained in glands. The system consists of [[Spinal_Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Upper_Motor_Neuron_(UMN)|upper]] and [[Spinal_Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Lower_Motor_Neuron_(LMN)|lower]] motor neurones. The information provided below is primarily focussed on the motor pathways that coordinate skeletal muscle movement, i.e. motor pathways related to '''voluntary control of skeletal muscles'''.

==Motor Pathways==
The connections between the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Motor_Cortex|motor cortex]] in the forebrain and motor neurons within the spinal cord are made up of two pyramidal tracts; the '''pyramidal system''' and the '''extrapyramidal system'''. These motor pathways are transmitted via the ventral horns within the spine. Upper motor neurones are located mainly within the neopallium of the [[Hindbrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebellum|cerebellum]]. They govern the excitation or inhibition of lower motor neurones.

Stimulation of the motor neurons is as a result of activity within the cerebral cortex and/or [[thalamus]]. There is a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory inputs from these parts of the brain. The thalamus effectively acts as a relay station from the [[cerebrum]] and cerebellum before neurons lead into the motor pathways of the spine.

===Pyramidal System (Corticospinal)===
[[Image:pyramidalsystem.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Pyramidal System © Sarah Hamilton]]
The pyramidal tract produces fine movements associated with skill, e.g. writing and playing a musical instrument in humans. This tract is composed of direct connections that contain no synapses within the brain stem. Nerve fibres of the pyramidal system originate in the cerebral cortex and then pass to the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Thalamus|thalamus]], and [[Hindbrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Medulla Oblongata|medulla oblongata]]. Therefore the neurons pass directly through the ventral aspect of the medulla oblongata in a pyramidal shape providing the reason for the name of this tract. Some fibres decussate in the medulla oblongata, whilst others remain ipsilateral until they leave the [[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology|spinal cord]] where they cross the midline of the body. The result of this is that all fibres cross the midline at some point, so that the '''left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa'''.

Motor tracts within the pyramidal system are fundamental in the control and coordination of muscle groups that require '''concentration and conscious thought to control'''. This is particularly true for movements of the hands and fingers and therefore these pyramidal tracts are most developed in primates, although may exist in other species such as the cat, where they aid in grooming. It is thought that the evolution of pyramidal tracts is closely associated with the development of conscious and fine movements. In most domestic species that lack the ability to undertake fine movements the pyramidal tracts are primarily involved in '''control of the jaw, lips and aspects of the face'''.

===Extrapyramidal System===
[[Image:Extrapyramidal system.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Extrapyramidal System © Sarah Hamilton]]
The extrapyramidal system represents part of the motor pathway system that has synapses within the brain stem which is in contrast to those of the pyramidal system. The extrapyramidal tract is distinguishable from the pyramidal system as tracts do not run within the pyramids of the medulla oblongata and instead run outside. This extrapyramidal pathway contains various multisynaptic pathways that relay within several nuclei in the brain. These nuclei are dispersed from the telencephalon to the medulla oblongata and may be visible grossly.

Other parts of the extrapyramidal tract take origin from the tectum and reticular formation. These synapses within the brain stem make it possible for the motor neurone signals to be influenced as they enter the ventral horn of the spinal cord. The [[Hindbrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebellum|cerebellum]] utilises this influence to ensure that movements are smooth and coordinated.

There are a number of neurones involved in modifying the neuronal signals in the extrapyramidal tract. These include the neurones that relay within nuclei which include the '''red nucleus''', the '''substantia nigra''', the '''caudate nucleus''', the '''subthalamic nuclei''' and the '''olive''' in the medulla oblongata. The [[Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology#Ascending Reticular Formation|'''reticular formation''']] is also involved in the extrapyramidal pathway. Neurones that relay in the red nucleus and reticular formation relay directly onto lower motor neurons whilst others relay to other nuclei. The main descending motor tracts from the red nucleus and the reticular formation are the '''rubrospinal tract''', the '''reticospinal tract''', the '''vestibulospinal tract''' and the '''tectospinal tract'''. The rubrospinal tract is important in carnivores and ungulates as it modulates pattern generators in the [[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology|spinal cord]].

The extrapyramidal tract is responsible for the '''control of larger muscles''' and also '''groups of muscles'''. This tract constitutes a major part of the coordination system in which groups of muscles are used to maintain posture and smooth movements during locomotion. These types of movements do not require the same level of conscious input or concentration as those of the pyramidal tract. It is thought that the extrapyramidal system represents an earlier evolutionary development than the pyramidal system and therefore is more often a feature of animals less able to perform complex movements. It is '''the most important system in domestic species'''.

==Links==

*[[:Category:Nervous System - Pathology|Pathology of the Nervous System]]

{{review}}

[[Category:Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology]]
[[Category:A&P Done]]

Lymph Nodes - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:38:03Z

Fiorecastro:

[[Image:Lymph Node positions.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Positions of the lymph nodes (dog) - Copyright B.Catchpole RVC]]
[[Image:Aspinall Slide11.JPG|thumb|right|250px|<small>Image from [http://www.elsevierhealth.co.uk/veterinary-nursing/spe-60136/ Aspinall, The Complete Textbook of Veterinary Nursing], Elsevier Health Sciences, ''All rights reserved''</small>]]
==Introduction==
''For haemolymph nodes click [[Haemolymph Nodes - Anatomy & Physiology|here]]''
[[Image:LH Lymph Node Diagram.jpg|thumb|250px|right|<p>'''Diagram'''</p>]]
<p>Part of the [[Lymphatic System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|lymphatic system]], the body contains hundreds of lymph nodes of varying size (1-20mm) and these are located along the routes of [[Lymphatic Vessels - Anatomy & Physiology|lymphatic vessels]]. They are found throughout the body but are more concentrated in the axilla, groin and mesenteries. Lymph nodes act as a filter for the lymph removing antigens and releasing immune-competent cells and immunoglobulins.</p>
==Development==
<p>Lymph nodes develop from lateral plate mesoderm in paired sacs from [[Lymphatic Vessels - Anatomy & Physiology|lymphatic vessels]]. These sacs undergo remodelling, and endothelial and mesenchymal outgrowths form the meshwork of channels and spaces that produces the cortex-medulla structure. Lymphocytes then populate the cortex and medulla. The subcapular sinus is a remainder of the [[Lymphatic Vessels - Anatomy & Physiology|lymphatic vessel]].</p>

==Structure==
[[Image:Aspinall Slide10.JPG|thumb|right|250px|<small>Image from [http://www.elsevierhealth.co.uk/veterinary-nursing/spe-60136/ Aspinall, The Complete Textbook of Veterinary Nursing], Elsevier Health Sciences, ''All rights reserved''</small>]]
[[Image:LH_Lymph_Node_Follicles_Histology.jpg|thumb|250px|right|<p>'''Primary & secondary follicles'''</p><sup>©Nottingham Uni 2008</sup>]]
[[Image:LH_Lymph_Node_Follicle_Histology.jpg|thumb|250px|right|<p>'''Secondary Follicle'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>]]
===General===
<p>Grossly the lymph nodes are round or bean shaped and have an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Microscopically the nodes have follicles, paracortical zones and medullary cords and sinuses. At the hilum the medulla is present on the outer part of the node. Lymph nodes are located in series with [[Lymphatic Vessels - Anatomy & Physiology|lymphatic vessels]]. Afferent vessels enter the node on its convex side and efferent vessels exit on its concave side.</p>
===Capsule and reticular framework===
<p> The nodes are surrounded by a fibrous capsule that extends into the node as trabeculae, which provide an overall framework. Below the capsule is the subcapsular sinus. The nodes' parenchyma contain a fine network of reticular fibres and reticular cells. Reticular cells provide "scaffolding" for other cells as well as expressing surface complexes and substance to attract [[Lymphocytes#T cells|T cells]], [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] and [[T cell differentiation#Dendritic Cells|dendritic cells]].
The cortex has aggregations of [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] (in the follicles) in its outer region and a paracortex consisting of a rim of [[Lymphocytes#T cells|T cells]] surrounding these follicles. [[T cell differentiation#Dendritic Cells|Dendritic cells]] are also found in close association with the [[Lymphocytes#T cells|T cells]]. The medulla contains medullary cords of cells ([[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]], plasma cells and some [[Macrophages|macrophages]]) and between these cords is the medullary sinus lined with endothelial cells and [[Macrophages|macrophages]].</p>

===Sinuses===
<p>Three sinuses are present:
*Subcapsular/cortical
**Where afferent vessels drain
*Trabecular
**Drain lymph from subcapsular to medullary sinuses
*Medullary
Antigens and transformed cells that pass through the sinuses are filtered by [[Macrophages|macrophages]] and removed from the lymph.</p>

==Follicles==
<p>Lymph nodes have two types of follicles, primary and secondary. Secondary follicles contain germinal centres (sites of B-cell proliferation) and have three layers.
*The central dark zone contains a high density of dividing centroblasts, [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] without surface Ig. These centroblasts migrate to the Basal light zone.
*In the basal light zone the [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] express surface Ig and become exposed to the follicular dendritic cells.
**Here there is a high rate of apoptosis but surviving cells migrate to the apical light zone.
*Apical light zone (mantle zone) which contains cells which are destined to become B memory (lymphoblasts) or plasma cells (plasmablasts). </p>
<p>Follicles in the cortex of a stimulated node are larger and have a pale germinal centre. Activated [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] differentiate into plasma and memory cells. Plasma cells migrate to the medullary cords and produce immunoglobulins.</p>

==High Endothelial Venules==
[[High Endothelial Venules|High endothelial venules (HEV)]] are composed of cuboidal/columnar epithelium and are the major route for lymphocytes to enter the lymph node. HEV contain a large number of aquaporin-1 channels allowing for a large uptake of water which in turn drives lymph flow through the cortex. This fluid is then returned directly to the bloodstream. The venules are the source of most of the node's [[:Category:Lymphocytes|T cells and B cells]] and express selectins (receptors for lymphocytes primed with antigens).

HEV express CD34 and GlyCAM-1 which bind to L-selectin on naive lymphocytes. This allows circulating lymphocytes to recognise when they have reached a secondary lymphoid organ stimulating them to leave the bloodstream and enter the lymphatic tissue.

==Pig Lymph Node==
''As well as dolphins, hippopotamuses and rhinoceroses''
<p> The structure of the pig lymph node is inverted compared with that of most mammals.
* Most follicles are found deep in the paracortex
** The paracortex is surrounded by loose medullary tissue
* Afferent lymphatics enter at the hilus
** Connect with para-trabecular sinuses and exit from efferent lymphatics on the node surface.
* [[Blood Vessels|Blood vessels]] enter and leave at the hilus</p>
==Histology==
<gallery perrow="4" >
Image:LH Lymph Node Gross Histology.jpg|<p>'''Gross view'''</p><sup>©Nottingham Uni 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Lymph_Node_Gross_2_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Gross view'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Lymph_Node_Gross_3_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Gross view'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Lymph_Node_Capsule_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Capsule'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Lymph_Node_Medullary_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Medullary sinus'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Lymph_Node_Trabecular_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Trabecular sinus'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Lymph_Node_Follicular_layers_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Follicular layers'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Lymph_Node_HEV_Histology.jpg|<p>'''High endothelial venule'''</p><sup>©Nottingham Uni 2008</sup></gallery>

==Functions==
<p>The lymph nodes are [[:Category:Secondary Lymphoid Tissue|secondary lymphoid tissue]], and as the [[Spleen - Anatomy & Physiology|spleen]] removes antigens from the blood, lymph nodes remove antigens from tissue/lymph. Antigen presenting cells ([[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] and [[Lymphocytes#T cells|T cells]]) migrate from peripheral tissue via afferent [[Lymphatic Vessels - Anatomy & Physiology|lymphatic vessels]] to the lymph nodes where they present their antigen to lymphocytes. [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] and [[Lymphocytes#T cells|T cells]] enter via the high endothelial venules by diapedesis and [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] migrate to the cortex while [[Lymphocytes#T cells|T cells]] to the deep cortex.</p>
<p>Antibodies and immunologically competent cells leave the lymph nodes via the efferent lymphatics.</p>
<br>
{{Template:Learning
|OVAM=[http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/histology-bovine-lymph-node Bovine Lymph Node Histology]<br>[http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/histology-bovine-lymph-node-germinal-centre Bovine Lymph Node Histology - Germinal Centre]
}}

<br><br>
{{Jim Bee 2007}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/internal-medicine/webinars/feed</rss>
[[Category:Lymph Nodes|A]]

Vent Prolapse - Fish

2023-01-09T14:37:18Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==
Prolapse through the vent can be quite common in fish. This can occur secondary to an '''infective process''' or due to '''straining from passing eggs''' or constipation.

Potential prolapsed organs include:

:'''cloacal prolapse''' through the anal pore
:'''intestinal prolapse''' through the anal pore
:'''rectal prolapse''' through the anal pore
:intestinal prolapse through the genital pore
:'''ovarian prolapse''' through the genital pore

==Clinical Signs==
The most obvious clinical sign will be of a '''mass''' protruding from the vent of the fish.

The fish may appear depressed, lethargic and anorexic. [[Dropsy]] may occur.

==Diagnosis==
The nature of the prolapse may become apparent after a '''careful physical examination'''.

Intestine will have a smooth surface whereas ovarian tissue appears grainy with small white to yellow follicles.

'''Cytology''' may help differentiate the tissue and provide a definitive diagnosis.

==Treatment==
In the case of ovarian tissue, '''surgical resection''' is recommended. An encircling ligature can be placed or a CO<sub>2</sub> laser can be used to remove the mass. Further eggs can be milked from the fish by inserting a syringe into the genital pore and exerting gentle "milking" pressure on the fish's abdomen.

Prolapsed intestine or rectum should be '''reduced''' if possible, and suture material can be used to anchor the tissue to the vent.

'''Conservative treatment''' is also possible and some prolapses reduce on their own if the fish is in otherwise good condition.

A '''purse-string suture''' can be placed around the genital pore or the anal pore to prevent further prolapses whilst also allowing the passage of eggs or faeces.

Care should be taken to provide optimum water quality and to avoid unnecessary stress to the fish.

{{Learning
|flashcards = [[Ornamental Fish Q&A 02]]
}}

==References==
Campbell, T. (2011) '''Clinical Cases in Avian and Exotic Animal Hematology and Cytology''' ''John Wiley and Sons''

Lewbart, G. (1998) '''Ornamental Fish: Self-assessment colour review''' ''Manson Publishing''

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/internal-medicine/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Fish Diseases]]
[[Category:Expert Review - Exotics]]

Osmosis and Filtration - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:36:25Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==

Osmosis is the passive movement of water across a semi permeable membrane. It occurs in the opposite direction to diffusion of ions. Water moves from a region of low solute concentration and therefore high water concentration to a region of high solute concentration and low water concentration.

==Pressure and Water Movement==
[[Image:watermolbondang.jpg|right|thumb|250px|<small><center>Molecular Structure of Water</center></small>]]
[[Image:efferthyhypisosol.jpg|right|thumb|250px|<small><center>The osmotic effect on red blood cells placed in three different solutions (courtesy of Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)</center></small>]]
If you have two bodies of water, one pure and one with a solute dissolved in it, separated by a membrane permeable to water but not the solute then water molecules from the pure water move to the side with the solute. This movement of water causes a fluid pressure difference at the entrance and exits of the holes in the membrane. At the side with the solute the fluid pressure is lower than at the side without however this pressure difference is only at the exit of the hole and not in the solution as a whole. This pressure difference is the actual cause of the movement of water.

However if you increase the pressure, on one side of the membrane, of the fluid as a whole you force more water through the membrane. If enough pressure is applied to the side with the solute then it can overcome the pressure differences across the pores and reverse them causing water to flow against its concentration gradient. This is '''filtration'''. The pressure of a fluid is termed the '''hydrostatic pressure'''. The point at which the hydrostatic pressure prevents the natural movement of water is called the '''osmotic pressure'''. As the concentration of the solution becomes higher the greater the pressure required to overcome the natural movement of water therefore the greater the osmotic pressure.

Water therefore moves from areas of lower osmotic pressure to areas of higher osmotic pressure however if you increase the pressure on the side with the higher osmotic pressure you can still stop the net movement of water.

If two solutions are of the same osmotic pressure they are termed isosmotic, a solution with a higher osmotic pressure is termed hyperosmotic and one with lower is termed hyposmotic.

==Units of Pressure==
Pressure is force per unit area. Therefore its si unit the Pascal is N/m<sup>2</sup>. However it is common in physiology to use mmHg which is the measure of pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury of that height.

[[Category:Transport Across Membranes]]

Reproductive Hormones Overview - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:35:19Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==
Reproductive hormones often have multiple roles and operate via [[Negative_Feedback_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|negative feedback systems]]. The information below will provide the main reproductive hormones in domestic species and their functions.
<br />
<br />
Please note that due to the complexity of the interactions of some of the hormones noted below, it has not been possible to fully explain the effects of the hormone on this page. Therefore this reproductive hormones overview should be utilised alongside more detailed information on specific physiology such as the reproduction pages which can be found within the '''WikiAnatomy & Physiology''' section on the top of the bar on the left.

==Reproductive Hormones==
===Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)===
GnRH is a neuropeptide (a decapeptide) that is produced in the '''hypothalamic surge''' and '''tonic''' centres. In the male and the female, the target tissue is the '''anterior pituitary gland''', specifically '''Gonadotroph cells'''. In males and females, secretion of GnRH results in the release of '''Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)''' and '''Leutinising Hormone (LH)''' from the anterior pituitary gland.
<br />
<br />
GnRH-producing neurons are stimulated into production in response to spontaneous rhythms and by sensory impulses from sensory inputs derived from the external environment. Alterations in the internal conditions of the body can also result in altered GnRH production. For example in some species such as the sheep, there is seasonal sexual activity and the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, pituitary and testes interact to regulate functions further along the signalling chain.
<br />
<br />
In females when the oestrogen concentration prior to ovulation reaches a certain threshold, large quantities of GnRH are released in the form of a surge. This results in a corresponding peak in LH that stimulates ovulation. In females this surge centre is often called the '''preovulatory centre'''. In males this surge centre becomes inactivated during fetal life due to the brain maturation effects of estradiol (see section below) being able to pass through the blood brain barrier in males, please see the [[Reproductive_System_Development#Sexual_Differentiation_of_the_Brain|reproductive development of the brain]] for more details. In males there are between 4-12 GnRH peaks per day. Plasma concentrations of LH peak approximately 10mins post GnRH surge.
<br />
<br />
Although the hypothalamus via GnRH stimulates the secretion of LH and FSH, it cannot regulate LH and FSH independently. Therefore another hormone produced from the developing ovarian follicle in the female and sertoli cells in the male acts as a negative feedback mechanism for FSH. Sex hormones also alter the level of production of GnRH from the hypothalamus via a negative feedback system. High concentrations of progesterone or testosterone will reduce the secretion of GnRH and also therefore the secretion of LH and FSH.

===Luteinising Hormone (LH)===
LH is a type of glycoprotein that is produced in the '''anterior pituitary''' via gonadotroph cells and serves to regulate the function of the gonads. In males LH stimulates the production and secretion of testosterone from the testes via '''leydig cells'''. In females LH stimulates the production of oestrogens and progesterone from the ovary via [[Follicles_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Primary_Follicle|'''theca interna cells''']] and '''luteal cells'''. Concentrations of LH increase during ovulation and with the formation of the corpora lutea with progesterone secretion. The secretion of LH is regulated via the secretion of GnRH (see earlier section).
<br />
<br />
As shown previously, in males there are between 4 to 12 GnRH pulses per day and this therefore means that LH also peaks throughout the day. During these peaks, the production and secretion of testosterone increases. Testosterone secretion also is pulsatile.

===Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)===
FSH is a type of glycoprotein that is produced in the '''anterior pituitary''' via '''gonadotroph cells'''. FSH secretion is regulated by GnRH from the hypothalamus. The target tissue of FSH in males are the '''sertoli cells''' within the testes and in the female the '''granulosa cells''' of the ovary. FSH stimulates the maturation of germ cells within the testes and ovaries. In the female it also stimulates follicular development and oestradiol synthesis.
<br />
<br />
In the male FSH also stimulates the secretion of '''inhibin''' which has a negative feedback directly to the anterior pituitary. Although GnRH is released in a pulsatile fashion and the other gonadotropic hormone LH is therefore also pulsatile, FSH concentrations do not fluctuate as much as that of LH. This is because of the added regulatory feedback mechanism of inhibin within the regulatory pathways for FSH secretion.

===Prolactin (PRL)===
Prolactin is a protein that is produced from by the '''anterior pituitary''' via '''lactotroph cells'''. This hormone exerts a stimulatory effect on milk synthesis within the mammary glands. It has also been shown to have some degree of gonadal function in some domestic species and rodents. In birds increased concentrations of prolactin have been linked with brooding behaviours and the associated metabolic changes that birds undergo during brooding.
<br />
<br />
Prolactin secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus which produces several neurohormones that affect prolactin concentrations. The most important within this is [[Neurotransmitters_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Biogenic_Amines|'''dopamine''']] (or prolactin inhibitory hormone, PRL-IH) which exerts a totally dominant inhibitory action on prolactin synthesis. The hypothalamic regulation of prolactin secretion is via signals from the central nervous system. Prolactin synthesis is increased when the mother is suckling via a reflex stimulation of the teats. This stimulation reflex reduces the secretion of dopamine and increases the hormone '''prolactin releasing hormone''' (PRL-RH). Once prolactin binds to it's target receptors within the mammary gland cells, it activates an intracellular tyrosine kinase. When this occurs in the developing animal this binding can also cause the differentiation of mammary epithelial cells during pregnancy. The half-life of prolactin is approximately 20mins.
<br />
<br />
Estradiol can also have an effect on the prolactin producing cells within the anterior pituitary and is responsible for increased concentrations of prolactin in females undergoing puberty and may also contribute to the increased concentrations during late pregnancy.

===Oxytocin (OT)===
OT is a neuropeptide (a octapeptide) which is synthesised in the '''hypothalamus''' and stored in the posterior pituitary. OT is primarily involved in upregulating the activity of smooth muscle cells in the uterus and the smooth muscles surrounding the alveoli ducts of the mammary glands. At parturition, OT causes strong contractions from the myometrium. OT is also essential for 'milk let-down' in most domestic species.
<br />
<br />
OT binds to receptors in the membrane of target cells which activates phospholipase C. OT facilitates the generation of the driving pressure behind pushing the milk towards the large excretory ducts and the teats.

===Estradiol (E<sub>2</sub>)===
Estradiol (E<sub>2</sub>) is a steroid hormone and is part of the oestrogens group of hormones and is the principle oestrogen in females. '''Estrone''' and '''estriol''' are chemically similar to estradiol but are found in lower concentrations and have a lower estrogenic activity. Production of oestrogens occurs in the ovary via [[Follicles_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#General_Structure|'''granulosa cells''']], the [[Placenta_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|placenta]] and the Zona reticularis of the [[Adrenal_Glands_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Adrenal_Cortex|adrenal cortex]]. In males in it is produced in sertoli cells found in the testes. Estradiol is synthesised from cholestrol.
<br />
<br />
Oestrogens have a number of functions related to reproduction and other areas of physiology. In relation to the reproductive role of oestrogens, they stimulate follicular growth and maturation, induce the female to begin displaying oestrous behaviour to facilitate mating, prepare the external genitalia for copulation and create favourable conditions for the development of fertilised egg cells. Oestrogens also contribute to the growth and development of mammary tissue and prepare the uterus for parturition.
<br />
'''Effects on reproductive organs:'''
<br />Vagina: slight mucous secretion, hyperaemia, oedema
<br />Cervix: relaxation, liquification of mucous plug (causing the bull string)
<br />Uterus: stimulates uterine gland development, sensitization of the endometrium to oxytocin, immune activation (local), leucocyte infiltration, secretion of PGF<sub>2a</sub> and PGE<sub>2</sub>
<br />Fallopian tube: increased motility and cilia activity
<br />Mammary gland: stimulates mammary duct development
<br />Corpus luteum: Luteolytic (bovine and ovine) but luteotrophic (equine and porcine)
<br />
<br />
Where oestrogens stimulate growth of follicles in the ovaries, oestrogens secreted from the ovary in the '''[[Oestrous_Cycle_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Follicular_Phase|follicular phase]]''' ('''[[Oestrous_Cycle_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Pro-Oestrus|proestrous]]''' and '''[[Oestrous_Cycle_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Oestrus|oestrous]]''') lead to hypertrophy of the epithelium and the endometrium. Secretory glands within the uterus enlarge and secretion is initiated leading to thickening of tissues. The blood vessels supplying the uterus and external genitalia dilate and blood flow to these areas increases significantly. Oedema occurs within the uterus and surrounding connective tissues. Oestrogen also causes increased uterine muscle tone. In the cervix oestrogens stimulate increased mucus secretion and the vaginal epithelium becomes keratinised.
<br />
<br />
In males the target tissue is the brain where it causes maturation of the brain during development. This maturation process ensures the appropriate development of male sexual behaviours. E<sub>2</sub> in the male also inhibits long bone growth.

===Progesterone (P<sub>4</sub>)===
Progesterone is a steroid hormone that along with oestrogens is based on a cholesterol molecule produced by the corpus luteum and the placenta using cholesterol as the base molecule. Progesterone is produced by the [[Corpus_Luteum_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|corpus luteum]] as well as by the feto-placental unit and in the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex (to a lesser extent). More detailed information regarding corpus luteum [[Corpus_Luteum_Formation_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|formation]] and [[Corpus_Luteum_Regression_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|regression]] please use the links. Progesterone prepares the uterus for reception of fertilized oocytes and is transported via the blood bound to plasma proteins. Progesterone also prepares the mammary tissues for milk production as well as inhibiting female reproductive behaviours associated with oestrous.
<br />
'''Effects on reproductive organs:'''
<br />Vagina: slight mucous secretion, paleness, exfoliation
<br />Cervix: closure, formation of the mucous plug
<br />Uterus: stimulates uterine gland secretions, sensitization of the endometrium to oxytocin, decreases uterine motility, immunosuppression, inhibition of PGF<sub>2a</sub> and PGE<sub>2</sub>
<br />Fallopian tube: increased secretion, decreased motility
<br />Mammary gland: stimulates lobulo-alveolar development
<br />
<br />
The concentration of progesterone increases after ovulation increasing the growth of glands found in the endometrium resulting in increased secretion. These secretions include mucin, carbohydrates and specific proteins that are designed for nourishment of the embryo prior to implantation. Progesterone also stimulates the growth of the endometrium and stabilises smooth muscle cells to ensure that they do not contract during foetal development. Once near term, the concentration of progesterone decreases, altering the ratio between progesterone and oestrogen. This stimulates myometrial activity and prepares the uterus for parturition.
====Progesterone During Pregnancy====
During pregnancy the plasma concentration of progesterone is maintained at an elevated level. Progesterone also inhibits secretion of FSH and LH (negative feedback at hypothalamic level by inhibiting GnRH) and thus also prevents the [[Oestrous_Cycle_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Oestrus|ovulation]] of follicles during the [[Oestrous_Cycle_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Luteal_Phase|luteal phase]] and during pregnancy. In most domestic species the corpus luteum persists for the entire length of gestation.
<br />The exception to this rule is the mare in which the progesterone concentration falls during the later stages of pregnancy. This is due to the regression of the corpus luteum around day 180 of the 330-340 day gestation period.
<br />
<br />
It is possible to use the relative concentration of progesterone as an aid to pregnancy diagnosis, for example in cattle. However, for a definitive diagnosis a high level of progesterone is required on two separate samples due to the overlap between the luteal phase and pregnancy.

===Testosterone (T)===
The male sex hormone is called testosterone and this hormone is required for [[Spermatogenesis_and_Spermiation_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|spermatogenesis]]. Testosterone is a steroid hormone that is produced in the leydig cells within the testes. A relatively high concentration of testosterone is maintained within the testicular tissue and testosterone is circulated around the body by diffusion of the hormone from the spermatic cord into the testicular veins and arteries. The primary action of testosterone is anabolic growth, spermatogenesis promotion and promotion of secretion from the accessory sex glands.
<br />
<br />
Male sex hormones are regulated by negative feedback systems that operate at various levels within the male sex hormone system. The starting point for the production of testosterone (and therefore the production of spermatozoa)is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus contains neuroendocrine cells that are capable of secreting a substance called '''Gonadotropin-releasing hormone''' or GnRH. GnRH stimulates basophilic cells in the adenohypophysis, via the "portal system" to secrete two intermediate hormones within the male sex hormone cycle; '''Luteinizing hormone''' (LH) and '''Follicle-Stimulating Hormone''' (FSH).
<br />
<br />
The secretion of GnRH is pulsatile and can vary greatly throughout the day and/or year, and therefore the secretion of LH and FSH are also pulsatile (although the plasma concentration of FSH does not fluctuate as much as LH due to the effect of Inhibin, see below). The activity of GnRH neuroendocrine cells is determined by spontaneous rhythms and by sensory impulses. Cycles such as seasonal sexual activity are controlled by this pulsatile system. In male animals there are generally 4 to 12 GnRH pulses per day.
====Testosterone Regulation====
When LH binds to the Leydig cells, it stimulates the cellular messenger '''cAMP''' to '''activate protein kinase A'''. Protein kinase A undergoes a series of phosphorylations that in turn activate a series of enzymes that synthesis testosterone from the cholesterol base molecule. A portion of the testosterone produced in the Leydig cells diffuses into the Sertoli cells that are positioned adjacent to the Leydig cells in the testes but seperated by a basal lamina. This secreted testosterone is converted to to the female sex hormone estradiol in the Sertoli cell and as with the testosterone, a proportion diffuses into the blood, becoming part of the negative feedback system for LH.
<br />
<br />
Testosterone inhibits the secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus and therefore secretion of LH from the pituitary gland. If the testes are removed via castration, blood concentrations of LH and FSH will increase as there is only limited negative feedback.

====Effects of Male Sex Hormones====
Testosterone plays a crucial role in the development of male sex organs during fetal growth where increased production of testosterone causes penis growth and development of accessory sex glands during puberty. Testosterone also affects a number of other characteristics of the male, often called the "secondary sex characteristics". Testosterone is able to bind to receptors in the cytosol of cells in the same manner as other steroid hormones and these hormone-receptor complexes are then able to bind to DNA in the nucleus resulting in alterations in the level of transcription of specific genes.
<br />
<br />
Testosterone has a number of anabolic effects stimulating the development and growth of the skeleton and skeletal muscles. Muscle masses show a general increase and in certain body regions such as the neck of stallions or bulls there is obvious hypertrophy. Testosterone also alters behaviour in terms of increasing the degree of sex drive and as a result of the action in several areas of the brain, behaviour can become more aggressive. The [[Larynx_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|larynx]] of males also enlarges during puberty and the vocal cords lengthen resulting in a deeper and stronger voice.
<br />
<br />
Testosterone also causes an increase in the level of pheromones to be secreted by glands in the skin which attract and evoke sexual behaviour in females. Glands use in scent marking and territorial marking are also activated by testosterone. In certain species, tusks, antlers and horns are also stimulated to develop.

===Inhibin===
Inhibin is a type of glycoprotein that is synthesised within the granulosa cells of ovarian follicles in females and in sertoli cells located in the seminiferous tubules within the testes in the male. In both males and females the target organ for inhibin is the adenohypophysis, specifically the gonadotroph cells (basophilic cells).
<br />
<br />
In the male inhibin production is stimulated via androgens. Inhibin inhibits FSH secretion, which together with decreased concentrations of LH and testosterone results in decreased spermatogenesis and therefore decreased sperm output and quality.
<br />
<br />
In females some studies have suggested that inhibin may also be produced by the placenta. In females inhibin inhibits FSH secretion. It does however not have any effect on the secretion of LH. When inhibin is secreted, a relatively higher concentration of LH is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland than FSH. Therefore during follicle development, the increased LH concentration causes cessation of the recruitment of further follicles under the effect of FSH. The hormonal changes resulting from the production of inhibin cause some of the previously recruited follicles to undergo atresia.
<br />
<br />Inhibin in the female can also be diminished by GnRH and enhanced by insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1).

===Activin===
Activin is a glycoprotein that is produced within granulosa cells in females and sertoli cells in the male. Activin is thought to play an almost directly opposite role to that of inhibin and is involved in many physiological functions including stimulation of FSH synthesis and other roles including cell proliferation, cell differentiation, apoptosis and homeostasis.
<br />
<br />
The target tissue for activin in the male is the epididymis where it enhances spermatogenesis via increased FSH secretion. Activin also enhances the effect of LH on the testes.
<br />
<br />
In the female activin has an effect on the anterior pituitary gland, specifically on gonadotroph cells, resulting in increased FSH secretion. The increased concentrations of activin results in increased FSH binding on the female follicle and FSH-induced aromatisation (increased synthesis of oestrogens). Activin also enhances the action of LH in the ovary.
<br />
<br />
A further non-reproductive role of activin is it's role in skin lesions where it is thought to stimulate keratinocytes.

===Prostaglandin F<sub>2α</sub>===
Prostaglanin is a C<sub>2</sub>O fatty acid and is produced within the uterine endometrium and vesicular glands. Estradiol stimulates prostaglandin synthesis while progesterone inhibits it. The target tissue in the female is the [[Corpus_Luteum_Regression_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|corpus luteum]], uterine myometrium and ovulatory follicles. In the female PGF<sub>2α</sub> cause luteolysis and can also cause the induction of tone and contractions within the uterus. It plays an important role in partuition in ruminants.
<br />
<br />
If a pregnancy is to remain viable then luteolysis needs to be avoided and this is achieved where concentrations of PGF<sub>2α</sub> remain below a threshold level allowing the [[Corpus_Luteum_Regression_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|corpus luteum]] to continue to secrete progesterone and thus maintain pregnancy. There are two main factors involved in the regulation of uterine secretions of PGF<sub>2α</sub>; oxytocin secretions from the [[Corpus_Luteum_Regression_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|corpus luteum]] and molecules secreted by the developing embryo that facilitate the maternal recognition of pregnancy.
<br />
<br />
Oxytocin secretion via the [[Corpus_Luteum_Regression_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|corpus luteum]] stimulates endometrial production of PGF<sub>2α</sub> and by the end of the [[Oestrous_Cycle_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|luteal phase]] the concentration of oxytocin and the number of oxytocin recptors within the endometrium allow the production of enough PGF<sub>2α</sub> to breach the threshold level and cause luteolysis. During pregnancy the embryonically produced [[Maternal_Recognition_of_Pregnancy_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|pregnancy recognition]] molecules inhibit the secretion of PGF<sub>2α</sub> from the endometrium ensuring that luteolysis cannot occur.
<br />
<br />
Normally the concentration of PGF<sub>2α</sub> in arterial blood is relatively low due to extensive metabolism by PGF<sub>2α</sub>-dehydrogenase (in especially the lungs). These levels are below the threshold required to cause luteolysis as PGF<sub>2α</sub> production in early gestation is low.
<br />
<br />
The [[Ovary_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Arterial_Supply|ovarian artery]] is wrapped around the uterine vein. This creates a countercurrent mechanism by which the lipid soluable prostaglandins are able to diffuse from the uterine vein into the [[Ovary_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Arterial_Supply|ovarian artery]]. During the latter stages of the [[Oestrous_Cycle_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|luteal phase]] as PGF<sub>2α</sub> production increases luteolysis will occur as PGF<sub>2α</sub> Is able to reach its target in the ovary before being metabolized in systemic circulation.
<br />
<br />
Horses and pigs do not poses this countercurrent mechanism. In these spp. the [PGF<sub>2α</sub>-dehydrogenase] in systemic circulation is much lower in order to induce luteolysis when Prostaglandin concentration rises.

===Prostaglandin (PGE<sub>2</sub>)===
PGE<sub>2</sub> is another form of prostaglandin that is produced by the ovary, uterus and embryonic membranes. This form of prostaglandin also has other important roles including vasodilation, smooth muscle relaxation, and inhibition of the release of noradrenaline from sympathetic nerve terminals.
<br />
<br />
In females it's target tissue is the cervix (it is a potent cervical dilator), [[Corpus_Luteum_Regression_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|corpus luteum]] and the oviduct where it helps induce ovulation and the secretion of progesterone from the corpus luteum. PGE<sub>2</sub> also plays an important role during labour where it aids the softening of the cervix in animals with a soft-type cervix(equine and human) and aids stimulation of uterine contractions. It can thus be used to prepare the tract for parturition.

===Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG)===
hCG is a form of glycoprotein that is synthesised within the trophoblast cells of a [[Blastocyst_Embryonic_Development_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|blastocyst]]. hCG is particularly important in primate reproduction where it has a similar effect to LH in stimulating the continued production of progesterone and oestrogens. This represents part of the system involved in foetal-maternal communication and [[Maternal_Recognition_of_Pregnancy_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|pregnancy recognition]]. Primate blastocysts therefore produce hCG in relatively high concentrations during the first 3 months of pregnancy. hCG has also been suggested to play a role in defence of the embryo from the maternal immune system during the initial stages of pregnancy. In males hCG increases the growth of the foetal testes.
<br />
<br />
As hCG is only produced by embryonic cells, the presence of this hormone within maternal blood can be used for pregnancy confirmation.

===Equine Chorionic Gonadotrophin (eCG)===
eCG is a form of glycoprotein that is produced from chorionic girdle cells. Chorionic tissues in horses as well as primates also form hormones. eCG is formed in foetal endocrine cells and is found within the maternal circulation. eCG is thought to play a similar role in horses to hCG in primates in terms of [[Maternal_Recognition_of_Pregnancy_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|pregnancy recognition]]. Foetal production of eCG is highest between 30-70 days of pregnancy. The primary target of eCG are the ovaries where they faciliate the formation of the accessory corpora lutea and ensure that progesterone production is maintained.
<br />
<br />
eCG is also thought to stimulate follicular growth and ovulation in the horse. If eCG is given to other species it acts in a similar manner to FSH and therefore eCG is often used to induce super-ovulation in species where a large number of oocytes are required for embryo transfer.

===Placental Lactogen (PL)===
Placental lactogen is a form of protein that is produced by the placenta and is chemically close in composition to growth hormone. The primary target tissue of PL are the mammary glands where they stimulate the growth of alveoli during pregnancy.
<br />
<br />
PL is also referred to as Chorionic Somatomammotropin (CS).
===Relaxin===
Relaxin is produced mainly by the corpus luteum in most species and in the placenta(main contributor in the equine) and ovaries throughout pregnancy. During pregnancy relaxin prevents the initiation of uterine contractions, together with progesterone. Relaxin accumulates troughtout pregnancy and is released in lare amounts a few days before partus. Its target organs are the cervix, vagina, pubic symphesis and related structures. Relaxin is responsible for the softening and relaxation of connective tissues in the cervix, muscles and ligaments in the pelvis prior to parturition. Estradiol priming is required for this. This relaxation of tissues via relaxin is performed in conjunction with prostaglandin.

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/urogenital-and-reproduction/webinars/feed</rss>
[[Category:To Do - Review]]
[[Category:Reproductive System - Anatomy & Physiology]]

Hindgut Fermenters - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:34:23Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==

Hindgut fermenters are evolved to eat a herbivorous diet. Such a diet includes large quantities of insoluble plant carbohydrates, such as cellulose. Mammals cannot digest these insoluble carbohydrates as they lack the essential enzymes, such as cellulase. However it is important that they do digest these carbohydrates as there is insufficient quantity of soluble carbohydrates in plant material. Some microbes do have the enzymes to digest these insoluble carbohydrates and so hindgut fermenters hold a symbiotic relationship with these microbes. Hindgut fermenters have anatomical adaptations to allow for an expanded microbial population. The products of fermentation are [[Volatile Fatty Acids|volatile fatty acids]]. It is important to supply a source of fibre in their diet as it stimulates peristalsis in the gut and prevents a build up of gas.

==Cellulose Structure==

[[Image:cellulose.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cellulose - © RVC 2008]]
Cellulose exists in the cell walls of plants. Mammals are unable to digest cellulose due it's structure. Cellulose is a polymer of glucose where each glucose monomer is joined to the next by a '''β-1,4 glycosidic bond'''. Mammalian enzymes only have the capability to break '''α-1,4 glycosidic bonds''', which are seen in starch and glycogen.

==Comparison with [[Ruminant Stomach - Anatomy & Physiology|foregut fermenters]]==
Hindgut fermenters have an enlarged hindgut as opposed to foregut, as the [[Ruminant Stomach - Anatomy & Physiology|ruminants]] do, for microbial fermentation to take place. Hindgut fermentation provides advantages and disadvantages.

'''Advantages:'''
Soluble carbohydrates, such as glycogen, are available to the animal before they are available to the microbes. Therefore the brain, which can only utilise glucose, receives a good, constant supply with relatively less time and energy utilised than in the ruminant. [[Ruminant Stomach - Anatomy & Physiology|Foregut fermenters]] receive nearly all of their energy in the form of [[Volatile Fatty Acids|VFAs]], which have to be converted to glucose by gluconeogenesis in the liver to be able to be used by the brain.

'''Disadvantages:'''
Microbes in the foregut can convert non-proteinaceous sources of nitrogen, like ammonia and urea to all of the amino acids. Microbial protein is available to the ruminant when the microbes die and pass down into the [[Abomasum - Anatomy & Physiology|abomasum]] and [[Small Intestine Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|small intestine]]. Therefore ruminants can survive on a poor quality source of of nitrogen. Microbial protein is not available to hindgut fermenters because when the microbes in the [[Large Intestine - Anatomy & Physiology|large intestine]] die, they get excreted as there is no further opportunity for their digestion. Microbes in the foregut synthesise vitamins, which are also available to the animal further on in the digestive tract. Again, they are not available to the hindgut fermenter. Microbes in the foregut can detoxify some poisonous compounds. Poisonous compounds can be digested and absorbed before they reach the microbes in the hindgut.

==Links==

'''Click here for more information on the [[Alimentary System - Horse Anatomy|horse]], [[Rabbit Alimentary System|rabbit]] and [[Elephant Alimentary System - Anatomy & Physiology|elephant]]'''.

{{Template:Learning
|flashcards = [[Hindgut Fermenters - Anatomy & Physiology - Flashcards|Hindgut Fermenters]]
}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/gastroenterology-and-nutrition/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Large Intestine - Anatomy & Physiology]]
[[Category:A&P Done]]

Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:33:42Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==
Sensory information from the periphery of the animal ascends through the [[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology|spinal cord]] and enters the higher levels of the brain. There are numerous pathways which allow different types of information to be passed to the brain. Types of general somatic sensation include pain, touch, temperature and kinaesthesia (conscious proprioception). This sensory information is sent to one of two destinations; the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebral Coretex|cerebral cortex]] or the [[Hindbrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebellum|cerebellum]].

When sensory information is relayed to the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebral Cortex|cerebral cortex]], information first passes via the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Thalamus|thalamus]]. The signal may be relayed one or more times by the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Thalamus|thalamus]] en route to the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebral Cortex|cortex]]. This sensory information reaches higher levels within the brain and therefore consciousness. The [[Hindbrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebellum|cerebellum]] is involved in co-ordination and this sensory information does not reach consciousness.

==Pathways==
===Ascending Pathways===
[[Image:The Ascending Pathways.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Ascending Pathways, Sarah Hamilton ''RVC'', 2008]]
Sensory information enters the [[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology|spinal cord]] on the same side of the body as the stimulus. Ascending tracts cross over the midline of the body to the contralateral side of the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Thalamus|thalamus]]. The [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Thalamus|thalamus]] directs the signal to the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebral Cortex|cerebral cortex]] for conscious perception. The pathway is direct with very few [[PNS Structure - Anatomy & Physiology#Nerve Fibre|neurones]] involved.

====1. Dorsal Columns====
Dorsal columns transmit information from touch and kinaesthesia; these are both classified as low threshold information. There are two major dorsal columns; the ''gracile fasiculus'' situated medially which conveys information from the hindlimbs and caudal trunk and the ''cuneate fasciculus'' which is situated more laterally and conveys information from the forelimbs and cranial trunk.

====2. Spinothalamic Tracts====
Spinothalamic tracts transmit information from temperature and "pin prick" pain; these senses are classified as fast, initial pain sensations. These tracts compare with the [[Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology#Ascending Reticular Formation|ascending reticular formation]].

====3. Spinocervicothalamic Tracts====
The spinocervicothalamic tracts transmit information from touch and kinaesthesia, although these are absent in man.

===Spinocerebellar Tracts===
[[Image:TheSpinocerebellarTract.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Spinocerebellar Tract - © Sarah Hamilton 2008]]

These tracts transmit information from proprioception receptors, including information from muscle receptors, joint receptors and golgi tendon organs. Most sensory information enters the [[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology|spinal cord]] on the ipsilateral side to the stimulus but some do cross to the contralateral side of the body. Contralateral signals pass back to the ipsilateral side of the body in the brain. Information is processed in the [[Hindbrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebellum|cerebellum]] and is therefore processed unconsciously.

====Dorsal Spinocerebellar Tract====
The dorsal spinocerebellar tract relays muscle spindle and golgi tendon organ information from the hindlimbs to the [[Hindbrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebellum|cerebellum]].

====Cuneo-cerebellar Tract====
The cuneo-cerebellar tract serves the same purpose for the forelimbs as the dorsal spinocerebellar tract does for the hind limbs, but is much smaller.

====Ventral Spinocerebellar Tract====
The ventral spinocerebellar tract is similar to the dorsal spinocerebellar tract but it takes a less direct route to the [[Hindbrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebellum|cerebellum]]. The forelimb equivalent is called the rostral spinocerebellar tract.

===Ascending Reticular Formation (Spinoreticular Tract)===
[[Image:AscendingReticularFormation.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Ascending Reticular Formation - © Sarah Hamilton 2008]]
The ascending reticular formation is thought of as the true pain sensation as the pain lasts longer. Sensory information enters the [[Spinal Column - Anatomy & Physiology|spinal cord]] on the ipsilateral side of the stimulus. Some signals cross to the contralateral side of the body. The tract consists of several [[PNS Structure - Anatomy & Physiology#Nerve Fibre|short neurones]]. Therefore the ascending reticular formation is ''bilateral'' and ''multineuronal'', although this pain pathway is thought to be more primitive than the [[Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology#Spinothalamic Tract|spinothalmic tract]]. In humans, the ascending reticular formation is superceded by the [[Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology#Spinothalamic Tract|spinothalamic tract]]. In animals, the ascending reticular formation is the main pathway for pain to reach the [[Forebrain - Anatomy & Physiology#Cerebral Cortex|cerebral cortex]].

==Pain==
Pain is not a sensory modality. The sensory modality that is checked in a neurologic exam is Nociception which is the patients response to a noxious stimuli. Pain is a subjective cerebral response. Noxious stimuli can result in responses ranging from itches, to nausea, to simply being in agony. Noxious stimuli may be transmitted to the brain by one of two pathways: the [[Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology#Spinothalamic Tract|Spinothalamic Tract]] or the [[Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology#Ascending Reticular Formation|Ascending Reticular Formation]].

===Spinothalamic Tract===
This fast, initial pinprick is detected by free [[PNS Structure - Anatomy & Physiology#Nerve Fibres|nerve]] endings and causes an impulse along large, myelinated fibres. The pain sensation is '''localised, and ends quickly'''.

===Ascending Reticular Formation===
This pain sensation is detected by free [[PNS Structure - Anatomy & Physiology#Nerve Fibres|nerve]] endings which causes an impulse along small, unmyelinated fibres. This results in a delayed perception of the sensation of pain, and that pain is often '''less localised but more persistent'''.

'''Clinical Relevance'''
During trauma the small unmyelinated fibres are the last fibres to fail as they are close to the [[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology|spinal cord]]. If deep pain sensation is lost in a case of trauma, then the prognosis is poor.
<br>
''Hyperalgesia'' is an increased pain sensation. This occurs when tissue is damaged because chemicals are released which increase the sensitivity of nociceptors, so that even light pressure can cause pain. Hyperalgesia may have evolved to aid the healing of injuries.

===Visceral Pain===
Visceral pain refers to pain related to the internal organs. Pain may be extreme, especially with distension, but the body's ability to localise the pain is poor. Skeletal muscle spasms may be observed during visceral pain. Commonly, the pain is referred to a different part of the body that is unharmed. This is because the areas are served by the same part of the [[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology|spinal cord]] e.g. in angina (pain in the heart), pain can be felt in the inner left arm or jaw. This is called ''referred pain''.

==Links==

*[[:Category:Nervous System - Pathology|Pathology of the Nervous System]]
<br>
{{Template:Learning
|flashcards= [[Sensory Pathways Flashcards - Anatomy & Physiology|Sensory Pathways]]
|powerpoints= [[Nerve Cells Histology resource|Histology of the nervous system]]
|OVAM = [http://wikivet.net/OVAM/Somatic%20Nervous%20System/assets/player/KeynoteDHTMLPlayer.html#0 PowerPoint presentation on the organisation and anatomy of the somatic nervous system]
}}
<br>
{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/neurology/webinars/feed</rss>
[[Category:Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology]]
[[Category:A&P Done]]

Hoof - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:16:42Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==
The hoof is defined from a physiologic perspective as the modified skin [[Skin - Anatomy & Physiology#Epidermis|(epidermis)]] covering the tip of the digit and all enclosed structures. The hoof provides protection to the distal limb and is formed by keratinisation of the epithelial layer and modification of the underlying dermis. The keratin in the [[Skin - Anatomy & Physiology#Epidermis|epidermis]], when thickened and cornified, is referred to as [[Horn - Anatomy & Physiology|horn]]. Horn makes up the outer surface if the hoof and is particularly resistant to mechanical and chemical damage.

Each epidermal region of the hoof is associated with a dermal region (corium). The corium are connected to the underlying structures by the subcutis. As the foot can be divided into 5 segments – Wall, coronary, periople, sole, and frog – there are 5 corresponding underlying corium.
<br />

The origin of the hoof is as a form of protection to the distal phalanx and stems from local modifications of the epidermis, [[Skin - Anatomy & Physiology#Dermis|dermis]] and subcutaneous layers. There is great variation in the shape and types of hooves across different species and this is often due to the multi-role nature of the hoof. In some species the hoof may play an important role in non-locomotion roles such as digging or being used as a weapon. The hoof also acts as a shock-absorber in that the hoof acts to reduce the concussion of foot impact on the structures of the distal limb. It has also been suggested in some species that the elastic nature of components of the hoof may aid the return of blood to the heart. The following information relates primarily to the horse hoof.

==Five Segments of the Hoof==
===Wall===
[[File:Lateral_view_horse_foot.jpg|thumb|right|150px|]]
The wall of the hoof is the element of the hoof that is visible. The wall forms the medial, lateral and dorsal aspect of the hoof and it can be further divided into the toe, quarters and heels. At the heel the walls reflect back on themselves at a point called the angles and in doing so forms the bars. The bars, although moving cranially, gradually fade along the edge of the frog and never actually meet.
The wall of the hoof is widest at the distal aspect of the hoof, i.e. at the toe. The wall of the hoof decreases in width laterally and medially (around the quarters of the hoof). In most domestic species the wall of the hoof is between 5 - 10mm thick and consists of three layers. There is an outer layer of thin but dense horn that is shiny and acts to reduce evaporation from the horn and therefore prevent dehydration of the other layers of the horn – the periople. There is an intermediate layer which represents the main structure of the wall and is composed of amorphous horn reinforced with many tubular shaped horn rods. Finally, there is an inner laminar layer where there are interdigitating laminae of horn and dermal laminae which ensure the hoof itself is firmly anchored to the distal phalanx. The bond between the horn and the underlying dermis is a living bond that gradually allows the wall of the hoof to slide in a distal direction towards the ground where the distal border is worn away via contact with the ground. Attached by the subcutis to the periosteum of the distal phalanx, the laminar corium suspends the entire weight of the animal by the distal phalanx within the hoof capsule via microscopic interdigitations with the epidermal laminae of the hoof wall. Damage to the vasculature of the laminar corium can result in compromises in the integrity of the interdigitations.

The hooves in newborn foals are bilaterally symmetrical. Over a period of just a few months, forces exerted on the hoof during locomotion cause a visible difference between the right and left, as well as front and hind hooves. Thus, isolated specimens of equine feet can be distinguished as follows:

Front vs hind:
Front: The angle between the toe and the ground is approximately 45 degrees. The sole is circular in shape.
Hind: The angle between the toe and the ground is 50-55 degrees. The sole is oval in shape.

Right vs left:
Quarters (lateral and medial walls) are steeper on the medial side of the hoof.
Assessment of the external anatomy can be a used as an important part of a lameness examination.

===Periople===
The periople is a small band of soft tissue found over the proximal surface of the wall of the hoof. The periople represents the junction between the wall and the skin of the limb. The periople is responsible for the production of the outer layer of the wall (above). The periople segment extends around the proximal edge of the wall and in horses covers the bulb of the heel and part of the frog. In ruminants it forms part of the join between both hooves of the foot. The perioplic corium, proximal to the coronary band and continuous with the skin, it produces the thin, shiny layer (stratum externa) of the hoof wall.

===Coronary Segment===
[[image: X-section through hoof.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A X-section through a typical hoof. ©Rachael Wallace2008]]
The wall of the hoof is created at the coronary dermis and grows in a distal direction from the coronary dermis. The coronary dermis is studded with many papillae which are directed towards the ground in the direction of growth. The epidermis covering these papillae produce horn tubules which are embedded into amorphous inter-tubular horn. This inter-tubular horn is created by the spaces between the papillae within the coronary dermis. The combination of both of these horn types ensures the horn has sufficient strength.

The pigmentation of the hoof is derived from melanocytes found in the coronary epidermis. Any pigmentation in the hoof will be most pronounced in the outer part of the hoof wall as the deeper layers of the hoof usually contain fewer melanocytes. It is this unpigmented element of the hoof that forms the 'white line' in the sole of hoofs and is particularly important in horses as a landmark for shoeing.

The coronary corium is responsible for the growth of the bulk of the tubular and non-tubular horn that make up the hoof wall. This wall glides distally at a rate of 5-6mm a month and by forming epidermal laminae itself it interdigitates with the underlying dermal laminae. Neither of these laminae are pigmented so when the epidermal laminae appear on the solar surface, a non-pigmented region known as the white line appears. The white line is used as important landmark in farriery as structures central to the line will be dermal and so vascular and sensitive. Interruptions in the coronary corium can result in defective hoof wall growth.

===Sole Segment===
[[image: Plantar hoof aspect.jpg|thumb|175px|left|A view of the solar surface of an equine hoof. The wall has been removed on the right to show the underlying dermis. ©Rachael Wallace2008]]
The sole is the area distal to the bars and apex of the frog enclosed by the hoof wall. The area where the bars and wall enclose it is known as the angle of the sole. Since the sole is slightly concave, the majority of the horse's weight is transferred through the margin of the sole.

The sole represents the part of the foot in contact with the ground and its composition differs between species. The keratin found in the sole is formed from the epidermis on the underside of the third phalanx and can grow to a thickness of around 10mm in domestic species. The keratin found on the sole is much more easily worn down or abraded than that of the wall of the hoof. The equine sole has a central frog structure whilst ruminants and pigs have a bulb structure to the sole.

The solar corium is the dermal layer underlying the solar surface that produces a superficially flaky epidermis. Sufficient solar depth is necessary to protect the underlying soft tissue and bony structures.

===Frog-Bulb Segment===
The frog is a wedge-shaped structure which sits between the bars and has an apex facing distally, with 2 crura flanking a central sulcus. Between the crus and bar of each half of the sole lies the collateral sulcus. Opposite the apex, the frog expands forming the bulbs of the heel. The frog is a mass of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, which is softer than other parts of the hoof due to its increased water content. Usually, the frog contributes to the weightbearing surface where it functions as a shock absorber. Apocrine glands within the corium of the frog produce secretions on the surface. The frog ensures that the wall of the hoof is forced outwards when weight is put on the limb thus ensuring that the 'hoof mechanism' functions correctly and ensuring circulatory flow around the hoof and back towards the heart.
The ruminant/pig 'bulb' provides the hoof with the caudal and mid-hoof contact area with the ground and is chiefly involved in weight bearing. The bulb inserts into the V-shaped sole. The bulb is made of relatively soft material, mainly inter-tubular horn and is of a considerable thickness.

The frog corium overlies the digital cushion and generates the specialised soft epidermal tissues of the frog.

==Deeper structures of the foot==
[[File:Horse_hoof_wild_bare_sagittal.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Sagittal section through horse hoof.]]
Enclosed within the hoof capsule are the bony structures – the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Phalanx|distal phalanx]], distal end of the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Middle_Phalanx|middle phalanx]], the [[Joints_and_Ligaments_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Interphalangeal_.28Coffin.29_Joint|distal interphalangeal joint]], and the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Sesamoid_.28Navicular.29_Bone|distal sesamoid bone (navicular)]]. There are also soft tissue structures including ligaments, cartilage, the digital cushion and the insertions of the [[Tendons_-_Horse_Anatomy#Thoracic_Limb|common digital extensor tendon]] and the [[Tendons_-_Horse_Anatomy#Flexorsdeep|digital flexor tendon]].

===Ungual (collateral) cartilages===
The ungual cartilages are extensions of the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Phalanx|distal phalanx]] (Plll) that extend caudally and dorsally from the medial and lateral margins of the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Phalanx|distal phalanx]], curving inwards towards each other in the heel region. The cartilages extend just beyond the confines of the hoof capsule making them palpable just above the coronary band at the lateral and medial edges of the foot. The ungual cartilages can ossify resulting in ‘side bones’ which have the potential for fracturing. The cartilages can also become infected resulting in the condition known as ‘quittor’.

The cartilages are securely attached to the other internal structures of the foot by a series of ligaments that extend from the medial and lateral cartilages to the distal and middle phalanx, the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Sesamoid_.28Navicular.29_Bone|distal sesamoid bone (navicular)]], and the digital cushion.

[[File:Lateral view hoof internal structures.jpg|thumb|Internal hoof structures]]

===Collateral ligaments.===
The distal interphalangeal joint is enclosed within the hoof capsule. It is stabilised by the medial and lateral collateral ligaments which form part of the joint capsule, connecting the distal end of Pll with the proximal edge of the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Phalanx|distal phalanx]].

[[File:Oblique view.jpg|thumb|Internal hoof structures]]

===Annular ligaments===
The annular ligament has its origins on the medial and lateral surfaces of distal Pl. It is the most superficial structure in the region, lying just beneath the skin and fusing with the [[Tendons_-_Horse_Anatomy#Flexorsdeep|digital flexor tendon]] where it enters the hoof capsule. Once inside the hoof the annular ligament merges with the fibrous attachments of the ungual cartilages and digital cushion, and continues with the [[Tendons_-_Horse_Anatomy#Flexorsdeep|digital flexor tendon]] down to its insertion onto the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Phalanx|distal phalanx]].

===Sesamoidean ligaments===
The dorsal border of the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Sesamoid_.28Navicular.29_Bone|distal sesamoid bone (navicular)]] is held securely to the palmar/plantar surface of the [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Phalanx|distal phalanx]] by the distal sesamoidean ligament and to the proximal phalanx via the proximal interphalangeal collateral ligaments by means of a pair of medial and lateral collateral sesamoidean ligaments.

===Navicular bursa===
The [[Phalanges_-_Horse_Anatomy#Distal_Sesamoid_.28Navicular.29_Bone|distal sesamoid bone (navicular)]] lies between the middle and distal phalanges and the deep digital flexor tendon. Associated with it is a fluid-filled sac that reduces friction between the bone and the [[Tendons_-_Horse_Anatomy#Flexorsdeep|digital flexor tendon]] that lies over the top of it— the navicular bursa. Inflammation in the region is involved in navicular disease which is a common cause of lameness.

===Digital Cushion===
The digital cushion is the internal tissue deep to the frog. It lies between the ungual cartilages and is comprised of collagenous, elastic tissue infiltrated by adipose tissue. At the bulbs of the heel, it is subcutaneous and is soft and loose in texture. It has connection with the digital annular ligament and, at the apex to the deep digital flexor tendon at its point of insertion on the distal phalanx. It acts as one of the major shock absorbers of the foot. When the limb is weight bearing, the increase in pressure and change in shape of the digital cushion and the frog compress the veins in the foot aiding venous return.

===Blood supply to the digit===
The main vessels supplying the digit in the forelimb are the medial and lateral palmar digital aa, both of which arise from the median a. In the digit of the hind limb the medial and lateral digital aa. are a continuation of the metatarsal a. and are also contributed to by the medial and lateral plantar aa. which branch from the sapheneous a.
The digital arteries give rise to numerous branches forming rich networks for the vascular tissues. Many anastomoses occur. The terminal branches of the main vessels finally enter a bony canal in the distal phalanx. Venous drainage is similar with the most distal vessels being the medial and lateral palmar/plantar digital veins. The compressive action of the hoof on the soft tissues within during locomotion generates an important function promoting venous return.

Normal equine digital vasculature anatomy can be divided into five major areas of perfusion:
1. Coronary plexus
2. Dorsal lamellar plexus
3. Circumflex vessels
4. Terminal arch
5. Heel perfusion.
Loss of perfusion to the lamella vessels, circumflex vessels, and terminal arch indicates a poor prognosis without aggressive therapy.

===Microcirculation in the dermal laminae===
Numerous arteriovenous anastomoses occur which are of a somewhat unusual type. Under normal circumstances these are closed and as a result circulation within the capillary beds of the dermal laminae occurs. Certain systemic pathologies may result in opening of these AV anastomoses resulting in ischaemia of the laminae. This in turn results in the hoof wall separating from the distal phalanx producing the disease termed “laminitis”, which can be either acute or chronic.

===Innervation of the equine digit===
The digit of the forelimb is innervated by the medial and lateral digital nerves. The medial digital n. is a continuation of the median n. and the lateral digital n. is derived from both median and ulnar nerves. These run on the palmar aspect of the digit in close proximity to the main arteries and veins. They give rise to several dorsal branches which supply dorsally located areas.

The pelvic limb digit is innervated on the dorsal aspect by the common digital nn. Derived from the fibular n. The plantar aspect is innervated by the medial and lateral digital nn which originate from the tibial n.
In addition to their normal importance in supplying innervation to the sensitive tissues of the equine digit these nerves are also of considerable clinical importance as they are utilized for the procedure termed diagnostic nerve blocks.

==Species variation==

===Ruminant Hoof===
The ruminant hoof, although resembling the equine hoof in some characteristics, differs from the equine hoof in several ways. In the ruminant hoof there are two separate main digits and the wall of the hoof is bent to form a border. Also the bulb of the heel covers the entire caudal surface of the hoof and most of the plantar surface, leaving only a small area of sole visible. In ruminants the interdigitating lamellae are smaller and less well developed than in equids.
<br />
<br />
The hooves of the main digits curve medially towards each other. The lateral digit carries more weight than the medial digit, and is larger. On the abaxial wall, the distal border makes contact with the ground along its entire length, whereas, on the axial wall, only does so toward the toe. The thickness of the wall increases towards the apex and the plantar surface. The horn of the hoof generally grows at a rate of 5 mm per month, and in cattle allowed to move freely, growth should equal wear. In intensively kept cattle, growth exceeds wear, and foot trimming is required to maintain optimal shape and angle. The optimal angle of the toe from the ground is 50 degrees. Where horn overgrowth occurs, the coffin joint is gradually overextended and the deep flexor tendon tensed. This results in greater weight being placed over the caudal part of the hoof and can cause pain and lameness.
<br />
<br />
'''Dewclaws''' are present in most ruminants but do not make contact with the ground. They consist of wall and bulb and have no practical importance.

See the [[Bovine Lower Limb - Anatomy & Physiology|bovine lower limb]] for further detail.

===Porcine Hoof===
[[File:Pig cracked hooves.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Pig Hooves and a cracked hoof wall]]
The hooves of pigs are principally similar to those of ruminants, however the wall is straight, not bent medially at the toe, and they have a soft bulb that is well distanced from the wall and sole. The hooves of the accessory digits are of the same structure as the principal digits, but only bear weight on soft ground.

Hoof trimming in pigs is rarely required due to the short lifespan of the farmed pig.

{{Learning
|flashcards = [[Hoof flashcards - Anatomy & Physiology|Hoof Flashcards]]
|full text = [http://www.cabi.org/cabdirect/FullTextPDF/2005/20053192986.pdf ''' The growth and adaptive capabilities of the hoof wall and sole: functional changes in response to stress.''' Bowker, R. M.; American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP), Lexington, USA, Proceedings of the 49th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 21-25 November 2003, 2003, pp 146-168, 32 ref.]<br>[http://www.cabi.org/cabdirect/FullTextPDF/2005/20053192988.pdf '''Contrasting structural morphologies of "good" and "bad" footed horses.''' Bowker, R. M.; American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP), Lexington, USA, Proceedings of the 49th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 21-25 November 2003, 2003, pp 186-209, 73 ref.]
|OVAM = [http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/white-line-bovine-hoof White Line of Bovine Hoof]<br>[http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/hoof-wall-bovine-distal-limb Bovine Hoof Wall]
}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/herd-health/webinars/feed</rss>
{{review}}
[[Category:Integumentary System - Anatomy & Physiology]]
[[Category:A&P Done]]

Spleen - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:15:53Z

Fiorecastro:

{|style="border:1px solid #cedff2;" align="right"
|
{|
|[[Image:LH_Canine_labelled_lateral_abdominal_organs_radiograph.jpg|200px]]
|[[Image:LH_Canine_labelled_ventrodorsal_abdominal_organs_radiograph.jpg|200px]]
|-
!colspan="2"|<center>Location canine radiograph</center>
|-
!Lateral view
!Ventrodorsal view
|-
|colspan="2"|<center><sup>©Nottingham Uni 2008</sup></center>
|-
|colspan="2"|<center>[[Image:LH Spleen Histology.jpg|200px]]</center>
|-
|colspan="2"|<center>'''Histological view'''</center>
|-
|colspan="2"|<center><sup>©Nottingham Uni 2008</sup></center>
|}
|}

==Introduction==
The spleen is a major lymphoid and blood filtration organ and is located in the left cranial abdomen. It is responsible for storing and removing [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]] from the blood as well as antigen surveillance of the blood and antibody production.
==Development==
<p>The spleen develops in association with the digestive system in the dorsal mesogastrium, and as the [[Monogastric Stomach - Anatomy & Physiology|stomach]] rotates during development the spleen comes to occupy the left cranial abdomen. Haematopoietic cells in the spleen are derived from the AGM (aorta-gonad-mesonephros) and yolk sac and as the [[:Category:Primary Lymphoid Tissue|primary lymphoid organs]] become established it becomes populated with [[Lymphocytes#Types|T and B lymphocytes]].</p>
==Structure==
{|align="right"
|[[Image:LH_Spleen_Equine_Ultrasound.jpg|150px]]
|[[Image:LH_Spleen_Histology.jpg|150px]]
|-
!<p>Normal Ultrasound</p> (Equine)
!Histological section
|-
|colspan="2"|<center><sup>©Nottingham Uni 2008 </sup></center>
|}
<p>The spleen lies vertically on the left side of the cranial abdomen. It is attached to the greater curvature of the [[Alimentary System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology#Stomach|stomach]] by the gastrosplenic ligament. The spleen is enclosed in a capsule of fibrous and elastic tissue that extends into the parenchyma as trabeculae. </p>
<p> The parenchyma is supported by a fine mesh of reticular fibres and is divided into two types of tissue, the red and the white pulp, which are separated by the marginal sinus.</p>
===Red Pulp===
<p>The red pulp makes up the majority of the spleen and is composed of a network of cell cords in series with vascular sinuses. The splenic cords contain [[Macrophages|macrophages]], [[B cell differentiation#Plasma cells|plasma cells]], [[Lymphocytes - Introduction|lymphocytes]] and other mature blood cells e.g. [[Blood Cells - Overview|granulocytes]] and [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]]. While the vascular sinuses are wide vascular channels lined with endothelial cells. Blood cells and fluid can pass into the splenic cords through fenestrations in the sinus walls. </p>

===White Pulp===
<p>White pulp is organised in relation to the splenic arterioles and consists of discrete lymphoid tissue surrounding a central arteriole. There is a sheath of [[Lymphocytes#T cells|T cells]] directly around the arteriole, the periarteriolar lymphoid sheath (PALS), which is surrounded by a marginal sinus, and then a zone of [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] and [[Macrophages|macrophages]] (the marginal zone). B cell follicles are associated with the marginal zone and expand and develop germinal centres after antigen activation. The marginal sinuses are linked to the red pulp sinuses. </p><p>White pulp stains basophilic in a H&E stain</p>
====Species Differences====
{|align="right"
|<center>[[Image:LH_Spleen_Equine_photo.jpg|110px]]</center>
|<center>[[Image:LH_Spleen_Bovine_photo.jpg|156px]]</center>
|-
!Equine
!Bovine
|-
|colspan="2"|<center><sup>©Nottingham Uni 2008 </sup></center>
|-
|<center>[[Image:LH_Spleen_Canine_Photo.jpg|110px]]</center>
|<center>[[Image:LH_Spleen_Ovine_Photo.jpg|150px]]</center>
|-
!Canine
!Ovine
|-
|colspan="2"|<center><sup>©RVC 2008</sup></center>
|}
<p>The capsule and trabeculae are much more muscular in carnivores and horses than ruminants</p>
*Carnivores
**Is elongated and dumb-bell shaped (larger ventrally)
*Ruminants
**Is flat and oblong shaped
*Horses
**Lies under the last three [[Ribs and Sternum - Anatomy & Physiology|ribs]]. Dorsally it is broad but narrows as it extends cranially and ventrally
**On rectal palpation it is located against the body wall and feels smooth with a sharp border
*Pigs
**Elongated and strap-like under the last few [[Ribs and Sternum - Anatomy & Physiology|ribs]]
*Birds ([[Media:Avian Liver and Spleen.jpg|Picture here]])
**Lies alongside, to the right, of the [[Proventriculus - Anatomy & Physiology|proventriculus]] and is found caudodorsally to the [[Avian Liver - Anatomy & Physiology|liver]]
**Spherical in chickens, triangular in ducks & oval in pigeons

===Vasculature===
<p>The splenic artery, a branch of the celiac artery, supplies the spleen. The artery branches into arterioles and capillaries, which may either:
*Connect with the venous sinuses, or
*Terminate with open ends in the splenic cords
Blood released into the splenic cords, either from the sinuses or capillaries, eventually filters back into the sinus network. The sinuses converge and empty into trabecular veins, which then merge into a single splenic vein which then empties into the portal vein.</p>
<p>[[Lymphocytes - Introduction|Lymphocytes]] in the arterial blood migrate from the red pulp sinuses, through the splenic cords and through the white pulp. [[Lymphocytes#T cells|T cells]] specifically migrate through the PALS and [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B cells]] specifically migrate through the follicles. Antigen in the blood is filtered by the large numbers of [[Macrophages|macrophages]] in the splenic cords and white pulp.</p>
====Species Differences====
<p>The splenic artery:
*Passes through the spleen without dividing in ruminants
*Branches regularly as it passes through the spleen in horses and pigs
*Branches before it reaches the spleen in dogs and cats</p>

===Innervation===
Innervation is purely sympathetic<ref>{{citation|initiallast = Nance|initialfirst = D.M|finallast = Sanders|finalfirst = V.M|year = 2007|jtitle = Autonomic innervation and regulation of the immune system (1987-2007)|jor = Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|vol = 21(6)|range = 736-745}}</ref> and nerve fibres travel with the artery into the spleen.
===Histology===
<center><gallery>
Image:LH_Spleen_Rat_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Low magnification view (rat)'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Spleen_Rat_Higher_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Red & white Pulp (rat) '''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Spleen_Rat_Higher_2_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Central artery & PALS (rat) '''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Spleen_Rat_Higher_3_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Trabecula and capsule (rat) '''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Spleen_Rat_Higher_4_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Trabeculae & erythrocytes (rat)'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup>
Image:LH_Spleen_Mouse_Higher_Histology.jpg|<p>'''Megakaryocyte & macrophages (mouse)'''</p><sup>©RVC 2008</sup></gallery></center>

==Functions==
<p>The spleen has a number of functions:
*It filters the blood removing ageing [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]] and antigens
*It stores [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]] and [[Thrombocytes|platelets]]
*[[:Category:Secondary Lymphoid Tissue|Secondary lymphoid organ]]</p>
===Erythrocytes & Platelets===
<p>In the foetus the spleen also has a role in [[Haematopoiesis - Overview|haematopoiesis]] when it becomes the main [[Erythrocytes|erythrocyte]] producing organ during the haematopoietic transitional phase.</p>
<p>In the developed animal the red pulp is involved in the removal of aged, damaged or abnormal [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]] (along with the [[Liver - Anatomy & Physiology|liver]] and [[Bone Marrow - Anatomy & Physiology|bone marrow]]). As [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]] age they become less supple and this causes them to become damaged when they pass through the very narrow capillaries of the spleen, after which they are phagocytised by splenic [[Macrophages|macrophages]]. If a splenectomy is performed the number of aged [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]] in circulation increases.</p>
<p> The red pulp also acts as a storage site for [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]]. The degree of storage is variable between species but is particularly notable in horses which, during exercise under sympathetic activity, can contract their spleen to increase the concentration of circulating [[Erythrocytes|erythrocytes]]. In some species such as cats and rodents the red pulp acts as a storage site for [[Thrombocytes|platelets]] and contains [[Thrombopoiesis#Megakaryocyte|megakaryocytes]].</p>

===Lymphoid===
<p>Blood flows through the marginal sinus. This means that most antigens present in the blood come into contact with the [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B lymphocytes]] and dendritic cells in the spleen. Dendritic cells in the marginal sinus and red pulp take up antigens from the blood and transport them to the primary follicles in the white pulp. If the antigen activates the [[Lymphocytes#B cells|B lymphocytes]] then a germinal centre will form in the primary follicle and this is called a splenic nodule. Antibody producing cells then migrate to the red pulp and marginal zone.</p>
<p>Following splenectomy this doesn’t occur and animals are predisposed to septicaemia and infection with blood [[Protozoa|protozoa]].</p>

{{Template:Learning
|videos = [[Video: Equine thoracic cavity dissection|Equine thoracic cavity dissection]]<br>[[Video: Feline Abdomen|Feline Abdomen]]<br>[[Video: Foal gastrointestinal tract potcast|Foal gastrointestinal tract potcast]]<br>[[Video: Ruminant abdomen potcast|Ruminant abdomen potcast]]<br>[[Video: Lateral view of the feline thorax and abdomen potcast|Video: Lateral view of the feline thorax and abdomen potcast]]<br>[[Video: Abdominal viscera of the horse dissection|Abdominal viscera of the horse dissection]]
|OVAM = [http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/spleen-histology-low-power Spleen Histology - Low Power 1]<br>[http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/spleen-histology-low-power-0 Spleen Histology - Low Power 2]<br>[http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/spleen-histology-high-power Spleen Histology - High Power]<br>[http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/rodent-spleen-histology-0 Rodent Spleen Histology]
}}

{{Chapter}}
{{Mansonchapter
|chapterlink = http://www.mansonpublishing.co.uk/book-images/9781893441958_sample.pdf
|chaptername = Spleen histology
|book = Quick Look Series - Histology
|author = Jo Ann Eurell
|isbn = 9781893441958
}}

==In pathology==
===Direct pathology===
*Specific spleen pathology can be found [[Spleen - Pathology|here]]
*[[Neoplasia - Pathology#Acute Undifferentiated Leukaemia|Acute undifferentiated leukaemia]] and [[Neoplasia - Pathology#Lymphoid Neoplasms|lymphoid neoplasms]]
===Changed or affected by===
*[[Post-Mortem Change - Pathology#Agonal Changes|Post mortem change]]
*[[Haemangioendothelioma|Haemangioendotheliomas]], [[Neoplasia - Pathology#Pancreatic carcinoma|pancreatic carcinomas]] & [[Haemangiosarcoma|haemangiosarcomas]]
*''[[Corynebacterium ovis]]'', [[Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae#Swine erysipelas|swine erysipelas]], [[Francisella tularensis#Pathogenesis and pathogenicity|francisella tularensis]], [[Salmonella#Spleen|salmonella]], [[Salmonellosis|enteric salmonellosis]], [[:Category:Brucella species#Pathogenesis and pathogenicity|brucella]] & [[Yersinia#Clinical infections|yersinia]]
*[[Poxviruses#Histopathology|Leporipoxviruses]] & [[Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus|bovine viral diarrhoea disease]]
*[[Pigmentation - Pathology#Haemosiderin|Haemolytic disorders]]

==References==
<references/>
<br><br>
{{Jim Bee 2007}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/gastroenterology-and-nutrition/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Spleen]]

Limb Vasculature - Horse Anatomy

2023-01-09T14:15:23Z

Fiorecastro:

==Thoracic Limb==
===Proximal===
The '''subclavian artery''' gives rise to the '''superficial cervical artery''', before it becomes the '''axillary artery'''. The '''deltoid branch''' of the superficial cervical artery accompanies the '''cephalic vein''' (arises from the external jugular vein) though a groove between the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Extrinsic Musculature of the Thoracic Limb|''brachiocephalicus'']] and [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Extrinsic Musculature of the Thoracic Limb|''pectoralis descendens'']]. The '''axillary vessels''' give rise to the following vessels before becoming the '''brachial artery''':
* '''External thoracic vessels''': supply the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Extrinsic Musculature of the Thoracic Limb|pectoral]] muscles
* '''Suprascapular vessels''': supply the caudal border of the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Extrinsic Musculature of the Thoracic Limb|''suprascapular'']] muscles
* '''Thoracodorsal vessels''': supply the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Extrinsic Musculature of the Thoracic Limb|''latissimus dorsi'']]
* '''Caudal circumflex humeral vessels'''

The '''thoracodorsal and circumflex arteries''' are branches of the '''subscapular artery'''. The '''cranial circumflex humeral artery''' runs deep to the coracobrachialis to supply the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Muscles of the Elbow|''biceps'']]; its corresponding satellite vein can cross the coracobrachialis on either surface. The '''thoracodorsal vein''' gives rise to the '''superficial thoracic vein''', which passes caudally to drain the ventral part of the trunk.

The '''brachial vessels''' give rise to deep brachial vessels, which supply the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Muscles of the Elbow|''triceps'']]. More distally, brachial vessels form '''bicipital vessels''' to the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Muscles of the Elbow|''biceps'']]. The next branches from the brachial vessels are the '''transverse cubital vessels''', which pass deep to the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Muscles of the Elbow|''biceps'']]. The '''collateral ulnar vessels''' arise from the caudal surface of the brachial vessels, following the path of the ulnar nerve. The final branches are the '''common interosseous vessels''', which pass through the interosseous space to continue as the '''cranial interosseous vessels'''.

The '''brachial vein''' gives rise to the '''median cubital vein''' at the level of the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Elbow Joint|elbow]]. This subsequently anastamoses with the '''cephalic vein'''. The cephalic vein leaves the groove between the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Extrinsic Musculature of the Thoracic Limb|''brachiocephalicus'']] and [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Extrinsic Musculature of the Thoracic Limb|''pectoralis descendens'']] and runs distally on the medial surface of the antebrachium. At the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Elbow Joint|elbow]] joint, it gives rise to the '''accessory cephalic vein''' which runs parallel to the cephalic vein but then curves cranially to terminate on the dorsal surface of the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Joint|carpus]].

The '''median artery''' gives off its palmar branch before passing through the carpal canal. It is then joined by a branch of the '''radial artery''' and continues towards the digit as the '''medial palmar artery'''. The smaller '''lateral palmar artery''' originates from the union of the '''palmar branch of the median artery''' with the '''collateral ulnar artery''' proximal to the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Joint|carpus]].

The '''median and radial arteries''' branch and then anastamose to form the '''deep palmar arch''' at the level of the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Joint|carpus]]. The '''median and lateral palmar metacarpal arteries''' arise from the deep palmar arch. They run distally on the axial surface of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|medial and lateral splint bones]], respectively.

Just distal to the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Joint|carpus]], the '''medial palmar artery''' has just passed through the carpal canal and then vein has crossed the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Joint|carpus]] superficial to the flexor retinaculum. In the metacarpus, the vessels lie medial to the interosseous and [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|deep digital flexor tendons]]. At the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint|metacarpophalangeal (fetlock) joint]] , the '''medial palmar vessels''' become the '''medial digital vessels'''. The '''lateral palmar vessels''' run past the carpus adjacent the the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Bones|accessory carpal bone]].

===Distal===

[[Image:Arteries and Veins of the Left Distal Forelimb.png|200px|thumb|right|'''Arteries and Veins of the Left Distal Forelimb from [http://www.mansonpublishing.com/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=12&A=BOOKSONIX_MANSON_BOOKSHOP&F=form&AS=FIND|IB|9783899936667 Budras' Anatomy of the Horse] with permission from [http://www.mansonpublishing.com/index.php Manson Publishing]''']]

====Arteries====
The arterial supply to the digit and fetlock of the thoracic limb comes mainly from the '''median palmar artery'''. The median palmar artery divides in the distal fourth of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|metacarpus]] between the[[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|superficial and deep digital flexor tendons]] and the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|suspensory ligament]], to become the '''medial and lateral digital arteries'''. Part of the '''deep palmar arch''' anastamoses with the '''lateral digital artery''' to form the '''superficial palmar arch''', which supplies the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint|fetlock joint]].

The digital arteries run superficially in the proximal [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint|fetlock]] region, emerging palmar to their satellite vein and between the palmar digital nerve and its dorsal branch. The medial and lateral digital arteries run distally over the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint|fetlock]] and each branches to supply the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint|fetlock joint]], [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Extensors|digital extensor]] and [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|flexor tendons]] , digital sheath, ligaments fascia and skin.

The '''short artery of the proximal phalanx''' arises from the medial and lateral digital arteries, immediately dividing into dorsal and palmar branches to form a circle around the middle of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]]. This supplies the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] and surrounding structures. The '''palmar branch of the short artery''' runs between the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] and the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|digital flexor tendons]] to join the contralateral vessel between the sesamoidean ligaments. The '''dorsal branch''' joins the contralateral vessel deep to the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Extensors|common digital extensor tendon]].

In the region of the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Interphalangeal (Pastern) Joint|proximal interphalangeal]](pastern) joint, the '''bulbar artery (artery of the digital cushion)''' arises from each digital artery. This artery branches to supply the [[Hoof - Horse Anatomy#Frog|frog]], [[Hoof - Horse Anatomy#Digital Cusion|digital cushion]], palmar part of the cuneate corium, laminar corium of the heel and bar and palmar parts of the perioplic and coronary corium.

The '''coronal artery''' arises from the digital artery or the bulbar artery to supply the heel and perioplic corium. The coronal artery then anastamoses with branches from the '''dorsal artery of the middle phalanx'''. The dorsal artery of the middle phalanx arises from each digital artery in the mid-region of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]], forming the '''coronary arterial circle'''; as the palmar and dorsal branches anastamose to form a complete arterial circle around the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]]. This coronary arterial circle supplies the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Distal Interphalangeal (Coffin) Joint|distal interphalangeal]] (coffin) joint, [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Extensors|common digital extensor tendon]], perioplic and coronary corium, fascia and skin.

Branches from the conjoined '''palmar branches of the middle phalanx''' anastamose to form the '''navicular plexus''', providing several small arteries to foramina along the proximal border of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|distal sesamoid]] (navicular) bone. This plexus provides approximately one third of the total blood supply to the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|navicular bone]].

At the level of the palmar process of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]], the '''digital artery''' forms a '''dorsal branch''' of the distal phalanx, then continues distally to the '''terminal arch'''. The dorsal branch gives off a small artery to supply the [[Hoof - Horse Anatomy#Digital Cusion|digital cushion]] and corium of the [[Hoof - Horse Anatomy#Frog|frog]], before it passes through a foramen in the palmar process of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]]. It then bifurcates on the dorsal surface of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]] to form branches that supply the corium of the heels and quarters, laminar corium of the toe, and eventually joining branches of the '''coronal artery''' and the '''marginal artery of the sole'''. The termination of the dorsal branch of the distal phalanx joins with a vessel that comes from the '''terminal arch''' in the solar canal. It then branches into several small arteries which enter the distal border of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]].

The '''medial and lateral digital arteries''' run in the solar groove of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]]. Each gives off branches to the '''navicular plexus''' in the distal sesamoidean (impar) ligament. The navicular plexus gives rise to the '''distal navicular arteries''', which enter the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|distal sesamoid]] (navicular) bone at the distal border and anastamose within the foraminae of the bone. These distal navicular arteries supply the distal two thirds of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|navicular bone]].

The '''medial and lateral digital arteries''' enter the solar foramen and form the '''terminal arch''' within the solar canal of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]]. Branches from the terminal arch run through foraminae on the parietal surface of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]] to supply the laminar corium. Several of these branches emerge near the solar border and anastamose to form the '''marginal artery of the sole'''. This supplies the solar and cuneate corium.

====Veins====
Venous drainage from the laminar corium is via '''parietal veins''' from the laminar circulation to the '''parietal venous plexus''' and '''coronary venous plexus'''. The coronary venous plexus also receives veins from the perioplic and coronary corium. Veins from the solar and cuneate corium drain into the '''solar venous plexus'''.

Veins in the solar canal anastamose at the level of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|distal sesamoid]] (navicular) bone, forming the '''medial and lateral terminal veins'''. The '''medial and lateral terminal veins''' join branches of the '''inner venous plexus''' to form the '''digital vein'''. This digital vein receives venous drainage from the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|navicular bone]], '''coronary vein''' (coronary region), '''inner venous plexus''' and '''bulbar vein''' (heel).

Most of the venous drainage from the equine foot is via veins on the palmar aspect, which generally lack valves. Some small branches of the coronary, subcoronary and bulbar veins have valves. This means that blood flow from the foot can take different routes and that weightbearing is essential for blood to flow proximally.

==Pelvic Limb==
===Proximal===
The '''internal iliac vessels''' branch to form the '''cranial and caudal gluteal vessels'''; which supply the croup and thigh regions. The cranial gluteal artery subsequently forms the '''obturator artery'''. The satellite '''obturator vein''' is a branch of the '''external iliac vein'''. The '''external iliac vessels''' become the '''femoral vessels''' in the thigh, giving rise to the '''pudendoepigastric trunks'''.

Femoral vessels form the '''lateral circumflex femoral vessels''', which enter the ''quadriceps'' between the ''rectus femoris'' and ''vastus medialis'', and the '''saphenous vessels'''. The saphenous vein is larger than the corresponding artery. The saphenous vessels divide in the proximal third of the leg to form '''cranial and caudal branches'''.
The '''cranial branch of the saphenous vein''' passes through the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Joint|tarsus]] to become the '''common digital vein''' in the region of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#metacarpals and metatarsals|metatarsus]]. This vein runs across the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#metacarpals and metatarsals|third metatarsal]] (cannon bone) to unite with the '''medial plantar vein'''. The '''caudal branch of the medial saphenous vein and artery''' run distally in a groove cranial to the common calcaneal tendon. The '''medial saphenous vein''' anastamoses with the '''caudal tibial vein''' and '''lateral saphenous vein''' proximal to the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Joint|hock]], subsequently dividing into the '''medial and lateral plantar veins'''. The '''saphenous artery''' anastamoses with the '''caudal tibial artery''', giving rise to the '''medial and lateral plantar arteries'''.

The '''femoral vessels''' give rise to the '''descending artery and vein of the stifle''', as well as other small vessels to that joint, in the distal third of the thigh. Some of the smaller vessels to the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Stifle Joint|stifle joint]] arise from the '''popliteal vessels''' which are continuations of the femoral vessels. The '''femoral vessels''' also branch to form the '''lateral saphenous vein'''. The lateral saphenous vein runs distally along the caudal border of the ''[[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Muscles of the Crus|gastrocnemius]]'' and anastamoses with the '''caudal branch of the medial saphenous vein''' and '''caudal tibial vein''' proximal to the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Joint|hock]].

The '''popliteal vessels''' bifurcate to form '''cranial and caudal tibial vessels''' at the level of [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Joint|hock]]; the fibular head. The '''cranial tibial vessels''' pass between the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia and fibula]], then follow the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]] to the level of the at this point they become the '''short pedal vessels'''. The '''pedal artery''' continues to become the '''dorsal metatarsal artery'''. The dorsal metatarsal artery passes over the lateral surface of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#metacarpals and metatarsals|third metatarsal]] (cannon bone) and [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#metacarpals and metatarsals|fourth metatarsal]](lateral splint) plantarodistally. It then receives the '''plantar metatarsal arteries''' which run on the plantar aspect of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#metacarpals and metatarsals|third metatarsal]].

===Distal===
The vascular supply to the digit in the pelvic limb is largely the same as in the thoracic limb.

The caudal branches of the '''saphenous artery and medial saphenous vein''' continue as the '''lateral and medial plantar vessels''', running with the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|deep digital flexor tendon]], over the sustentaculum tali, to the level of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|metatarsus]]. The vein lies superficial to the corresponding artery. In the digit, the medial and lateral digital veins, arteries and nerves lie next to each other in a dorsal to plantar arrangement; this can be remembered as VAN (vein, artery, nerve).

The '''medial and lateral plantar vessels''' enter the metatarsus to give rise to the '''deep plantar arterial and venous arches'''; from which the '''medial and lateral metatarsal vessels''' originate. The medial and lateral metatarsal arteries join the '''medial and lateral digital arteries''', which result from the bifurcation of the '''dorsal metatarsal artery''', close to the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint|fetlock]]. The dorsal metatarsal artery continues as the '''short dorsal pedal artery''', which subsequently forms the '''cranial tibial artery''' on the dorsal [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Joint|hock]]. The cranial tibial, dorsal pedal and dorsal metatarsal arteries supply the digit and [[Hoof - Horse Anatomy|hock]].

The '''dorsal common digital vein''' crosses the medial surface and the '''dorsal metatarsal artery''' crosses the lateral surface of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|third metatarsal]] (cannon bone) obliquely. The '''dorsal common digital vein''' joins the '''medial plantar''' vein in the distal third of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|cannon bone]]. The '''medial plantar vein''' then becomes the '''medial digital vein''' at the level of the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint|metacarpophalangeal]] (fetlock) joint. At this level, the medial plantar vein anastamoses with the '''lateral plantar vein''' via the '''distal deep plantar arch'''.

The '''medial and lateral digital arteries''' run on their corresponding sides of the digit, forming '''dorsal and plantar branches''' to the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] and [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]]. These branches anastamose with each other to form '''arterial circles''' around the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal]] and [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle]] phalanges.

The '''dorsal branch of the lateral and medial digital arteries''' arises at the level of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]]. It runs though the foramen/notch in the plantar process of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]] into the parietal groove. The digital arteries continue to the solar surface and enter the solar foraminae on either side to anastamose within the bone, forming the '''terminal arch'''. Branches of the terminal arch run in osseous canals to the parietal surface, where they supply the laminar dermis. Some branches also emerge close to the solar margin and anastamose to form an artery that follows this margin.

'''Digital veins''' are satellite to the arteries down to and into the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]], but not all the branching arteries are accompanied by veins. There is a dense '''venous plexus''' in the coronary and laminar dermis of the sole which drains into the '''medial and lateral digital veins''' via many smaller veins. Most of these veins lie subcutaneously, just proximal to the [[Hoof - Horse Anatomy|hoof]], others run directly to the digital veins from the axial surface of the [[Hoof - Horse Anatomy#Ungual Cartilages|ungual cartilages]].

==References==

*Baxter, G.M., Adams, Adams and Stashak’s Lameness in Horses, 6th Edition (2011), Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins
*Budras, K. Sack, W.O., Anatomy of the Horse, 6th Edition (2012), Schlutersche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG
*Konig, H.E., Liebich, H.G. Veterinary Anatomy of Domestic Mammals: Textbook and Colour Atlas (2009), Schattauer

{{review}}

[[Category:Cardiovascular System - Horse Anatomy]]
[[Category:Cardiology Section]]

Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:14:14Z

Fiorecastro:

== Introduction ==
[[Image:Deer Skull with Antlers.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Deer Skull with Antlers''', Nabrown, date unknown]]
The shape and size of the skull varies widely, not only between species but also with age, breed and sex of similar species. The skull is divided into three components - the '''neurocranium''', the '''dermatocranium''' and the '''viscerocranium'''. The skull also includes the '''[[Hyoid Apparatus - Anatomy & Physiology|hyoid apparatus]]''', '''mandible''', '''ossicles of the middle [[Ear - Anatomy & Physiology|ear]]''' and the cartilage of the '''[[Larynx - Anatomy & Physiology|larynx]]''', '''nose''' and '''[[Ear - Anatomy & Physiology|ear]]'''. The skull protects the brain and head against injury and supports the structures of the face. In some animals the skull is also used for defensive actions, for example in [[Horn - Anatomy & Physiology|horned]] ungulates such as red deer stags. The '''neurocranium''' develops from the neural crest and mesoderm and undergoes [[Bone & Cartilage Development - Anatomy & Physiology|endochondral ossification]]. It lies ventral to the brain. The '''dermatocranium''' lies dorsal to the brain and develops from the neural crest and mesoderm. It undergoes [[Bone & Cartilage Development - Anatomy & Physiology#1._Intramembranous_Ossification|intramembranous ossification]]. The '''viscerocranium''' is the pharyngeal skeleton. It is derived only from the neural crest and undergoes endochondral and intramembranous ossification. The various facial muscles attach onto the skull in different places depending on their function. Movement of the external appendages, [[Mastication|mastication]] and facial expressions all rely on the movement of the facial muscles. <br> <br>

== Structure ==

The skull is made of many small bones, most of which are paired. Cartilage or fibrous tissue separates the bones of the skull in the young animal and once growth has ceased, the sutures begin to ossify. <br> <br>

== Function ==

The skull has various functions including protection of brain, support of the facial muscles by providing origin and insertion sites, development of foramen to provide entry and exit places for the vasculature and nervous system and a defense function. <br> <br>

== Bones of the Skull ==

=== Occipital Bone (''os occipitale'') ===

[[Image:Pig skull dorsal.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Dorsal Pig skull''', nabrown, 2008]] The occipital bone forms the '''nuchal wall''' and the '''foramen magnum'''. The '''pars basilaris''' element is the caudal base of the cranium, although rostral to foramen magnum and joined by a cartilagenous suture to '''basisphenoid bone'''. It has muscular tubercules on ventral surface where the flexors of the head and neck attach and a caudocranial fossa encloses the pons and medulla oblongata. The squamous part '''''(pars squamosa)''''' is dorsal to lateral parts and occipital condyles. A nuchal crest is present and is easily palpable. The nuchal crest is often used as a landmark for collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). There are also external occipital protuberances present which provide muscle attachment sites for the nuchal ligament. The lateral parts '''''(partes laterales)''''' form the borders of foramen magnum. '''Occipital condyles''' are present which articulate with the atlas to form the atlanto-occipital joint. The '''paracondylar process''' provide muscle attachment sites for muscles of the head. The '''hypoglossal canal''' is also within this structure. <br> <br> <br>

=== Sphenoid Bone (''os sphenoidale'') ===

[[Image:Pig skull ventral view.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Ventral Pig Skull''', nabrown, 2008]] The sphenoid bone forms the base of the neurocranium and is composed of a body and wings. The bones are separated by cartilage which ossifies with age. The '''presphenoid (''os praespenoidale'')''' is rostral and has a caudal fossa which is a hollow body with sphenoid sinuses located inside. Within the sinuses are the '''optic chiasma''' and '''optic canal'''. The '''basisphenoid (''os basispenoidalis'')''' is caudal and has a '''median cranial fossa'''. The wings oppose the temporal bone, maxilla, orbit and the brain. The wings also form the '''oval foramen''' and other foramena (see [[Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology#Species_Differences|species differences]]) including the '''carotid notch, oval foramen''' and '''spinous notch''' (in the horse). The pterygoid processes are also present. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Temporal Bone (''os temporale'') ===

[[Image:Zygomatic arch.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Pig Zygomatic Arch''', nabrown, 2008]] The temporal bone is composed of '''squamous, petrosal''' and '''tympanic''' parts and forms the lateral wall of the cranial cavity. It articulates with the frontal, parietal and sphenoid bones. The squamous element joins the temporal process of the zygomatic bone to form the '''zygomatic arch''' and forms the articulating surface of the '''[[Mastication#Jaw_Articulation|temporomandibular joint]]'''. An '''articular tubercle''' and '''mandibular fossa''' are present. Occipital process and retrotympanic processes surround the '''external acoustic meatus''' whilst the petrosal part encloses the inner ear internally via the '''internal acoustic meatus'''. Ventrally this structure forms the '''mastoid process'''. The '''styloid process''' attaches the '''[[Hyoid Apparatus - Anatomy & Physiology|hyoid apparatus]]''' and a '''stylomastoid foramen''' is also present. The tympanic part is the ventral section of the temporal bone containing the '''tympanic bulla'''. The '''tympanic membrane''' separates tympanic cavity from '''external acoustic meatus''' and encloses the '''auditory ossicle''' dorsally. The musculotubal canal contains tensors of the [[Soft Palate#Musculature_and_Innervation|soft palate]]. <br> <br>

=== Frontal Bone (''os frontale'') ===

The frontal bone is a paired structure joined by the '''interfrontal suture''' between the cranium and the face and enclosing the '''frontal sinuses'''. The nasal and lacrimal bones border the frontal squama section and form the zygomatic process laterally and part of the orbit dorsally. Lacrimal glands are also present near the orbit. The '''temporal line''' extends into the '''external sagittal crest'''. Ruminants also have a '''cornual process''' in [[Horn - Anatomy & Physiology|horned]] variants. The nasal section is the rostral part of the frontal bone and the orbital part is perforated by the '''ethmoidal foramen'''. Medially the '''dorsal oblique muscle''' of the eyeball attaches. The temporal part provides the muscle attachments for the '''temporalis muscle'''. <br> <br>

=== Parietal Bone (''os parietale'') ===

[[Image:Pareital Bone.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Parietal Bone''', nabrown, 2008]] The parietal bone is a paired structure and forms the dorsolateral wall of the cranium with the cccipital bone caudally and the frontal bone rostrally. It is composed of a parietal plane, temporal plane and a nuchal plane (in the ox). Internally the grooves and ridges correspond with the gyri and sulci of the brain. There is also an '''interparietal bone''' between the occipital bone and the parietal bone which fuses with age. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Ethmoid Bone (''os ethmoidale'') ===

[[Image:Nasal Cavities.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Nasal Cavities''', David Bainbridge]] The ethmoid bone forms part of the cranial and facial parts of the skull and is located deep in the orbit. External lamina consist of the roof plate, floor plate and paired orbital plates. The ethmoid bone is separated from the cranial cavity by the '''cribiform plate'''. Numerous small foramina exist where the '''olfactory nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN I]]) passes through. The perpendicular plate splits the ethmoid into two halves and the ethmoid larbyrinth protrudes from the ethmoid tubes. The tubes are composed of two rows of '''ethmoturbinates''' and air filled '''ethmoidal meatuses'''. Secondary ethmoturbinates may also be present. Ethmoturbinates are divided into '''endoturbinates''' and '''ectoturbinates'''. The first endoturbinate forms the dorsal nasal conchae and the second endoturbinate froms the middle nasal conchae. The endoturbinates form 3 nasal meatuses; the '''dorsal nasal meatus''', the '''middle nasal meatus''' and the '''ventral nasal meatus'''. [[Image:Ethmoid Turbinates.jpg|thumb|right|200px| '''Ethmoid Turbinates''', nabrown, 2008]]<br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Nasal Bone (''os nasale'') ===

The nasal bone is a paired structure and forms the roof of the nasal cavity. '''Dorsal nasal conchae''' attach to the '''ethmoidal crest''' on the internal surface. A rostral suture forms the apex and between the nasal and incisive bones is the '''nasoincisive notch'''. <br> <br>

=== Lacrimal Bone (''os lacrimale'') ===

The lacrimal bone forms part of the lateral wall of the face and orbit and is situated near the '''medial canthus'''. It articulates with the '''frontal bone, zygomatic bone''' and '''maxilla'''. It also articulates with the '''nasal bone''' in ruminants and the horse and articulates with the '''palatine bone''' in carnivores. It is composed of an orbital and facial part separated by supra- and infraorbital margins. The '''nasolacrimal duct''' is present by the margin of the orbital surface. The '''ventral oblique muscle''' attaches caudal to the margin of the orbital surface. The nasal surface forms the boundaries of the '''maxillary and frontal sinuses'''. <br> <br>

=== Zygomatic Bone (''os zygomaticum'') ===

The zygomatic bone is lateral and ventral to the lacrimal bone and forms the orbit and zygomatic arch. The supraorbital margin is formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the frontal process of the zygomatic bone. The facial crest is present on lateral surface. <br> <br>

=== Incisive Bone (''os incisivium'') ===

[[Image:Cow skull lateral view.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Cow skull lateral view''', nabrown, 2008]] The incisive bone is a paired structure composed of body, nasal, palatine and alveolar parts. It joins with the maxilla to form the '''interalveolar margin'''. It also forms the rostral part of the facial section of the skull, the roof of the '''[[Hard Palate|hard palate]]''' and the opening to the nasal cavity. The alveolar process forms conical sockets for the incisor teeth. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Palatine Bone (''os palatinum'') ===

[[Image:Palatine Bone.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Palatine Bone''', nabrown, 2008]] The palatine bone is a paired structure between the maxilla, sphenoid and pterygoid bones. It is composed of a horizontal plate (forms part of the [[Hard Palate|hard palate]]), perpendicular plate (forms the dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal meatus) and the choanae. The '''nasal crest''' present on the horizontal plate. The '''palatine sinus''' is present on horizontal plate. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Vomer ===

The vomer is unpaired and extends from the choanae of the palatine bone to the floor of the nasal cavity. It attaches to the median nasal crest and has a '''septal sulcus''' which surrounds nasal cavity. <br> <br>

=== Pterygoid Bone (''os pterygoideum'') ===

The pterygoid bone is a paired structure bordered by the '''palatine''' and '''sphenoid bones'''. It forms the dorsal and lateral walls of the '''nasopharyngeal cavity'''. The '''pterygoid hamulus''' is formed by the pterygoid bone. <br> <br>

=== Maxilla ===

[[Image:Horse Maxilla.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Horse Maxilla''', nabrown, 2008]] The maxilla forms most of the facial part of the skull, including the lateral walls of the face, nasal cavity, [[Oral Cavity Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|oral cavity]] and [[Hard Palate|hard palate]]. It also forms the ventral nasal conchae and articulates with all of the facial bones as it is the largest bone of the face. The maxillary body encloses the '''maxillary sinuses''' and forms the external surface of the face. It also forms the '''facial crest'''. The '''infraorbital foramen''' is palpable. The '''conchal crest''' is on nasal surface where the ventral nasal conchae attaches. The '''lacrimal canal''' opens into the '''lacrimal foramen''' on the nasal surface. The '''pterygopalatine surfaces''' are the caudal part of the maxilla which terminate in the '''maxillary tubercle''' where the '''sphenopalatine, maxillary''' and '''caudal palatine foramen''' are present. The '''alveolar processes''' present are separated by '''interalveolar septa'''. The '''palatine process''' forms the '''[[Hard Palate|hard palate]]''' with the palatine bone. The '''palatine fissure''' is formed at the articulation with the incisive bone. The nasal surface of palatine process forms the '''nasal crest''' and encloses part of the palatine sinuses. The oral surface has numerous palatine foramina present. <br> <br>

=== Mandible (''mandibula'') ===

[[Image:Cow Mandible.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Cow Mandible''', nabrown, 2008]] [[Image:Parrot Mandible.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Parrot Mandible''', nabrown, 2008]] The mandible can be divided into the '''body''' and the '''ramus'''. The body of the mandible supports the incisor teeth (rostrally) and cheek teeth (caudally). The section of the body which does not support any teeth is called the '''interalveolar margin''' or '''diastema'''. The mandibule also contains the '''mandibular canal''' and the '''mental foramen'''. The '''facial notch''' is on the ventral surface where the '''parotid duct''' (in herbivores) and facial vessels run. The '''ramus''' extends from the caudal end of the body dorsally towards the zygomatic arch. The '''masseter muscle''' attaches to the lateral surface at the '''masseteric fossa'''. The '''medial pterygoid''' attaches to the medial surface at the '''pterygoid fossa'''. The angle of the mandible terminates dorsally in the '''condylar process''' and the '''coronoid process''' which are separated by the '''mandibular notch'''. The '''temporal muscle''' inserts onto the '''coronoid head'''. The condylar process articulates with the mandibular process of the skull (see [[Mastication#Jaw_Articulation|here]]). <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

== Major Foramen and Canals ==

[[Image:Foramen Magnum.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Foramen Magnum''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''jugular foramen''' is located either side of basilar part of occipital bone, adjacent to tympanic bulla and contains the '''glossopharyngeal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN IX]]), '''vagus nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN X]]) and '''accessory nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN XI]]). The jugular foramen also contains the '''internal carotid artery'''. The '''foramen magnum''' is formed by the occipital bones and is the spinal cord's passage to the neck and body. The '''alar ligaments''' run through the foramen magnum together with vertebral arteries, spinal arteries and tectoral membranes. The '''hypoglossal canal''' is between paracondylar and condylar processes on lateral part of occipital bone. The '''hypoglossal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN XII]]), '''condylar artery''' and '''condylar vein''' all pass through. The '''optic chiasma''' runs in a transverse depression behind the '''sphenoid rostrum''' on presphenoid bone and facilitates the path of the '''optic nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN II]]). <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> [[Image:Sheep Skull Eye Foramen.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Skull Eye Foramen''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''optic canal''' passes from the '''optic chiasma''' over wings of the presphenoid bones and facilitates the path of the '''optic nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN II]]). The '''oval foramen''' is found within the caudal wing of the basisphenoid bones and the '''mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V3]]) passes through it. The '''alar canal''' is formed by the rostral border of the basisphenoid bone at the base of the pterygoid processes. It is composed of the '''caudal alar foramen, rostral alar foramen''' and the '''small alar foramen'''. The '''maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V2]]) passes through together with the '''temporal artery'''. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> [[Image:Pig Foramen Ventral.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Pig Ventral Skull Foramen''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''stylomastoid foramen''' is situated on the petrosal part of the temporal bone and allows the '''facial nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN VII]]) to pass through. The '''ethmoidal foramen''' perforates the orbital part of the frontal bone allowing the '''olfactory nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN I]]) and '''ethmoidal artery and vein''' to pass through. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> [[Image:Cow Skull dorsal view.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Cow Skull Dorsal View''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''orbital fissure''' is on the presphenoid bone and allows the '''opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V1]]), '''occulomotor nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN III]]), '''trochlear nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN IV]]) and the '''abducens nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN VI]]) to pass through. The '''supraorbital foramen''' is on the frontal bone and allows the '''opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V1]]) to pass through together with the '''frontal artery and vein'''. The '''infraorbital foramen''' is on the maxilla and allows the '''maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V2]]) to pass through together with the '''infraorbital artery and vein'''. [[Image:Mental and Infraorbital Foramen.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Mental and Infraorbital Formen''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''mental foramen''' is on rostral end of the mandible and allows the '''mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V3]]) and the '''mental artery and vein''' to pass. The '''palatine canal''' runs through horizontal plate of palatine bone and allows the '''palatine artery''', '''palatine vein''' and '''palatine nerves''' to pass through. The '''internal acoustic meatus''' is made up of the medial surface of the petrosal part of the temporal bone and is the facial opening for the '''facial nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN VII]]). It is also the cochlear opening, dorsal vestibule opening and the ventral vestibule opening for the '''vestibulocochlear nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN VIII]]). <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

== Facial Muscles ==

The major facial muscles are covered in the following sections of anatomy and physiology:

[[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology#Muscles|Muscles of the Tongue]]

[[Cheeks|Muscles of the Cheeks]]

[[Larynx - Anatomy & Physiology#Intrinsic_Musculature|Muscles of the Larynx]]

[[Pharynx - Anatomy & Physiology#Musculature|Muscles of the Pharynx]]

[[Eye - Anatomy & Physiology#Around_the_Eye|Muscles of the Eye]]

[[Ear - Anatomy & Physiology#Outer_Ear|Muscles of the Ear]]

[[Deglutition|Muscles involved in Deglutition]]

[[Mastication|Muscles of Mastication]]

== Species Differences ==

=== Canine ===

[[Image:Pug skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Brachycephalic skull''', nabrown, 2008]] Dogs have different skull lengths depending on breed. '''mesocephalic''' dogs have average conformation whilst '''dolichocephalic''' dogs have longer skull lengths and '''brachycephalic''' dogs have shorter skull lengths. The two sides of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement in the canine jaw. The '''external sagittal crest''' arises from '''nuchal crest'''. The wings of the basisphenoid bones form the '''oval foramen, spinous foramen''' and '''carotid canal'''. Dogs have no '''foramen lacerum''' and the styloid process is absent. In canines, the dorsal orbital margin is formed by the orbital ligament, the orbit is incomplete. <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Feline ===

[[Image:Lion skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Lion skull''', nabrown, 2008]] The mandible appears globular in shape and the large orbits have complete bony margins. There are also large '''tympanic bullae''' which can be palpated. The two parts of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement. Cats have a '''weak external sagittal crest''' arising from the '''nuchal crest'''. The wings of the basisphenoid bones form the '''oval foramen, spinous foramen''' and '''carotid canal'''. Cats have no '''foramen lacerum''' and the styloid process is absent. The dorsal margin of orbit is formed by the orbital ligament which is ossified. The '''interparietal bone''' does not fuse entirely in the adult. <br> <br> <br>

=== Equine ===

[[Image:Horse Skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Horse Skull''', nabrown, 2008]] Horses have a '''weak external sagittal crest''' arising from the '''nuchal crest'''. They also have an '''internal sagittal crest''' on the '''internal surface of the parietal bone'''. The orbit is placed more laterally with a complete bony rim and a strong '''zygomatic arch''' continues on to form the '''facial crest'''. There is a '''deep nasoincisive notch''' and a prominent '''hamular process'''. Horses have a very large mandible with a '''vascular notch''' and a high ramus. The wings of the basisphenoid bones form the '''oval foramen, spinous notch''' and '''carotid notch'''. Horses have a '''foramen lacerum'''. The zygomatic process articulate with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone. Horses have '''three rows of ethmoturbinates present'''. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Ruminant ===

[[Image:Sheep skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Sheep skull''', nabrown, 2008]] In ruminants the skull is short and wide with a '''[[Horn - Anatomy & Physiology|cornual]]''' process on frontal bone. The nuchal crest is reduced to a '''nuchal line''', although there is a prominent '''temporal line'''. Ruminants have an elevated orbital ring which is complete but have no facial crest. There are prominent '''tympanic bullae''' and a '''nasoincisive notch''' present. The wings of the basisphenoid bones form the '''oval foramen'''. Ruminants have no '''foramen lacerum'''. The petrosal and tympanic parts of the temporal bone are fused to the squamous part. The zygomatic process articulates with the frontal process of the zygomatic bone. <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Porcine ===

[[Image:Pig skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Pig skull''', nabrown, 2008]] Pigs have a thick nuchal crest and an '''internal sagittal crest''' on the internal surface of the parietal bone. They have a prominent '''temporal line''' and their orbit is incomplete and small. There is a strong and deep zygomatic arch, large tympanic bullae and a high caudal part of the skull. The styloid process is absent. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>

=== Avian ===

[[Image:Bird skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Bird skull''', nabrown, 2008]] Birds have '''pneumatised skull bones''' which connect to airways in the head rather than the air sacs. They have large orbits and their skull plates are separated by spongy bone. A '''single occipital condyle''' articulates with the '''atlas''' allowing more rotation of the head. In parrots, the nasal bone and frontal bone are joined by a flexible cartilage structure allowing greater jaw opening which is called the craniofacial hinge. This allows kinesis to occur. Birds have thin '''jugal arches''' (equivalent to zygomatic arch) and the middle ear contains only the columella (equivalent to the stapes). <br> <br>
<br>

{{Learning
|flashcards= [[Skull - Musculoskeletal - Flashcards|Skull]]<br>[[Facial Muscles - Musculoskeletal - Flashcards|Facial Muscles]]
|videos= [[Canine Lateral Head video|Potcast of the lateral surface of the canine head]]
|dragster= [[Canine Head Skeletal Anatomy Resources (I & II)]]<br>[[Canine Head Skeletal Anatomy Resources (III, IV & V)]]<br>[[Canine Facial Features Dissection Anatomy Resource]]<br>[[Canine Head Radiographical Anatomy Resources (I, II & III)]]<br>[[Canine Head Radiographical Anatomy Resources (IV & V)]]<br>[[Equine Head Dissection Anatomy Resources (I, II & III)]]<br>[[Equine Head Dissection Anatomy Resources (IV, V & VI)]]
|OVAM = [http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/foraminae-skull-and-associated-cranial-nerves-video A short video detailing the large foraminae of the canine skull and cranial nerves associated with them.]<br>[http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/sites/default/files/original_media/document/asset_8862_REG.E.1all.pdf PDF showing a sectioned equine head with labels.]
}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/clinical-anatomy/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Musculoskeletal_System_-_Anatomy_&_Physiology]]
[[Category:Needs splitting]]

Lymphangiectasia

2023-01-09T14:13:28Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==
'''Lymphangiectasia''' is a disease of the [[Lymphatic Vessels - Anatomy & Physiology|lymphatic vessels]] that results in the leakage of protein-rich [[Lymph - Anatomy & Physiology|lymph]]. The term is usually taken to mean intestinal lymphangiectasia (in which lymph is lost into the intestinal lumen, producing a [[Protein Losing Enteropathy|protein-losing enteropathy]](PLE) and severe lipid malabsorption) but thoracic and generalised lymphangiectasia have been reported.

Lymphangiectasia can be classified into a primary or secondary disease. '''Primary lymphangiectasia''' usually only affects the intestine but it occasionally involves a concurrent [[Chylous Effusion|chylothorax]]. It occurs due to a congenital defect of the lymphatic vessels but it may be associated with inflammation of the lymphatics, so-called '''lipogranulomatous lympangitis'''. The relationship between lymphangiectasia and lipogranulomatous lymphangitis is currently unclear and it is possible that either condition could result in the development of the other. '''Secondary lymphangiectasia''' occurs with any pathological process that causes lymphatic obstruction, of which the most common are:
*Direct damage to the lymphatics
**'''Inflammation''' and subsequent fibrosis of the lymphatics, obstructing the lumina of the vessels.
**'''Neoplastic infiltration or erosion''' of the walls of lymphatic vessels.
**'''Obstruction of the thoracic duct''', the major lymphatic vessel that runs through the chest. This may occur due to traumatic rupture or due to the presence of a neoplastic mass.
*Increased pressure in the systemic veins reducing the pressure gradient from the thoracic duct to the subclavian veins
**'''[[Heart Failure, Right-Sided|Right-sided heat failure]]''' due to [[Cardiomyopathy|cardiomyopathy]], [[Cardiac Tamponade|cardiac tamponade]] or [[Tricuspid Valve Dysplasia|tricuspid dysplasia]], [[Cor Pulmonale]] or Cor Triatriatum Dexter.
**Obstruction to venous return by '''intra-thoracic masses''' including thymoma and thymic lymphoma.

==Signalment==
The disease is relatively common in dogs but rare in cats. Yorkshire terriers, Rottweilers and Norwegian Lundehunds are predisposed to the development of disease.

==Diagnosis==
===Clinical Signs===
Clinical signs are related to the loss of lymph and the resultant protein-losing enteropathy and fat malabsorption. The following signs are therefore common:
*'''Weight loss''' in the face of '''polyphagia''' due to loss of fat and protein.
*'''Chronic [[Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]]''' or '''steatorrhoea''', the latter occurring due to the high fat content of the faeces. The presence of large quantities of fat in the intestinal lumen provides a substrate for bacteria which produce hydroxy-fatty acids as by-products. Bacterial proliferation may result in concurrent [[Antibiotic Responsive Diarrhoea|small intestinal bacterial overgrowth]] (SIBO) and the hydroxy-fatty acids act as potent secretagogues in the colon, leading to the production of diarrhoeic faeces.
*[[:Category:Effusions|'''Effusions''']] may develop for a number of reasons in animals with lymphangiectasia. Ascites composed of a [[Transudate|transudate]] may develop in severely [[Hypoalbuminaemia|hypoproteinaemic]] animals but, in animals that develop secondary lymphangiectasia due to right-sided heart failure, a [[Modified Transudate|modified transudate]] may form due to portal hypertension. If the major lymphatic vessels of the abdomen are disrupted (by a neoplastic mass), [[Chylous Effusion|chylous ascites]] may develop, although this is very rare. In animals with congenital lymphangiectasia or in those with disruption of the thoracic duct, chylothorax has also been described.
*[[Vomiting|Vomiting]], lethargy and anorexia are uncommon clinical signs.

===Laboratory Tests===
Several parameters may be altered on haematological or biochemical analysis of blood samples.
====Haematology====
'''[[Lymphopenia|Lymphopaenia]]''' occurs as lymphocytes are the major type of cell present in lymph and they are therefore lost into the intestinal lumen in large numbers. If an inflammatory process (such as lipogranulomatous lymphangitis) has developed, there may be a '''monocytosis''' or '''neutrophilia'''.

====Biochemistry====
Changes on biochemistry mainly reflect the loss of lymph into the intestine:
*'''Panhypoproteinaemia''' occurs in most forms of protein-losing enteropathy and suggests that both plasma albumin and globulin are being lost.
*'''Hypocholesterolaemia''' and a reduction in the circulating concentration of triglycerides occur as these nutrients are lost into the intestinal lumen.
*'''Hypocalcaemia''' occurs due to hypoproteinaemia (reducing the total but not ionised calcium concentration) and due to vitamin D and calcium malabsorption. Hypocalcaemic tetany may be observed in animals which are severely hypocalcaemic and which then become stressed or excited.
*'''Hypomagnesaemia''' may also develop due to malabsorption but this is rarely recognised in clinical practice.
*[[Antibiotic Responsive Diarrhoea|Changes associated with SIBO are discussed here]].

====Other Tests====
Further tests may be used to confirm the presence of [[Protein Losing Enteropathy|protein-losing enteropathy]], including measurement of '''faecal alpha-1 protease inhibitor concentration''' and '''faecal 51-Chromium albumin concentration''' after intra-venous injection.

===Diagnostic Imaging===
====Ultrasonography====
Ultrasound scans may reveal the presence of effusions (pleural fluid or ascites) and may be used to rule out other causes of PLE. The mucosa of affected intestinal loops may appear to be thickened and may also appear to have 'tiger stripes', although the latter finding is an unreliable indicator of lymphangiectasia.

====Endoscopy====
[[Image:Lymphangiectasia.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Endoscopy of a dog with lymphangiectasia, showing protrusion of lipid droplets into the intestinal lumen.<br><small>Copyright Karin Allenspach 2007 RVC]]</small>
Grossly, multiple white lipid droplets can be seen to protrude from prominent mucosal blebs in the intestine (see image). The mucosa is frequently oedematous.

===Histopathology===
Preferably, a full thickness intestinal biopsy should be taken to achieve a definitive diagnosis. Care should be taken as hypoproteinaemic animals are at much greater risk of dehiscence at the biopsy sites, potentially leading to an acute septic [[Peritonitis - Cats and Dogs|peritonitis]]. On histological examination of the biopsy sample, accumulation of lipid-laden macrophages may be detected together with a granulomatous response around distended lymphatics.

It is essential to distinguish a true lymphangiectasia from secondary lacteal dilation that occurs with [[Inflammatory Bowel Disease|Inflammatory Bowel Disease]] (IBD). In the case of IBD, an inflammatory infiltrate will be seen in the lamina propria but the degree of infiltration may be underestimated if [[Oedema|oedema]] is present.

==Treatment==
If the lymphangiectasia is secondary to another disease, the underlying cause should be treated. Otherwise, the following elements should be considered in designing a treatment plan.
===Dietary modification===
The diet should have a '''low fat content''' to reduce the production of lymph but should have a high calorie content to allow the animal to regain weight. The fat soluble vitamins (K, E, D and A) should be supplemented and additional calcium should be added if hypocalcaemia is documented.

===Immunosuppressive===
Immunosuppressive agents are a key element in the treatment of lymphangiectasia. Corticosteroids such as [[Steroids|prednisolone]] are used most commonly for this pupose at an immunosuppressive dose (of 1-2 mg/kg/day in dogs). These drugs are likely to be of most benefit in those animals that have evidence of inflammatory pathology, such as lipogranulomatous lymphangitis and inflammatory infiltration of the lamina propria. If further immunosuppression is considered necessary or if adverse effects occur with corticosteroid therapy, azathioprine or ciclosporin could also be used.

===Antimicrobials===
[[Nitroimidazoles|Metronidazole]] or [[Macrolides and Lincosamides|tylosin]] may be used to control any secondary [[Antibiotic Responsive Diarrhoea|SIBO]]. Antibiotics are thought to have effects on both the intestinal immune system and the normal enteric flora.

===Fluid therapy===
Short term treatment with plasma or [[Colloids|colloids]] can be instituted in severely hypoproteinaemic animals that have begun to develop clinical signs. Diuretics such as [[Heart Failure, Treatment#C. Pharmacological|frusemide and spironolactone]] may also be used to manage effusions.

==Prognosis==
The long-term prognosis is guarded as, although animals may respond to medical therapy initially, they frequently relapse and develop clinical signs associated with hypoproteinaemia.

{{Learning
|Vetstream = [https://www.vetstream.com/canis/Content/Disease/dis02922.asp, Canine lymphatic diseases]
|literature search = [http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?rowId=1&options1=AND&q1=Lymphangiectasia&occuring1=title&rowId=2&options2=AND&q2=&occuring2=freetext&rowId=3&options3=AND&q3=&occuring3=freetext&x=54&y=14&publishedstart=yyyy&publishedend=yyyy&calendarInput=yyyy-mm-dd&la=any&it=any&show=all Lymphangiectasia publications]
}}

==References==
*Ettinger, S.J. and Feldman, E. C. (2000) '''Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine Diseases of the Dog and Cat Volume 2''' (Fifth Edition) ''W.B. Saunders Company''.
*Hall, E.J, Simpson, J.W. and Williams, D.A. (2005) '''BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Gastroenterology (2nd Edition)''' ''BSAVA''
*Nelson, R.W. and Couto, C.G. (2009) '''Small Animal Internal Medicine (Fourth Edition)''' ''Mosby Elsevier''.

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/gastroenterology-and-nutrition/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Intestine_-_Inflammatory_Pathology]]

[[Category:Intestinal Diseases - Dog]][[Category:Intestinal Diseases - Cat]]
[[Category:Expert_Review]]

Hyperlipaemia - Horse

2023-01-09T14:12:49Z

Fiorecastro:

Also known as/ see also: '''[[Fatty Liver Syndrome|Fatty liver syndrome]]''' (intended to refer to cattle disease) — [[Hyperlipaemia - Donkey|Hypelipaemia in donkeys]] — [[White Liver Disease - Sheep|White liver disease in sheep]] — [[Pregnancy Toxaemia|Preganacy toxaemia in sheep]] — [[Hepatic Lipidosis|Hepatic lipidosis in cats and dogs]]

Do not confuse with: [[Hyperlipidaemia - Horse|'''Hyperlipidaemia<br>]]

==Introduction==
'''Hyperlipaemia''' is a severe metabolic disorder which occurs in response to a negative energy balance, the end result is multi-organ failure as lipid is deposited in the liver and kidneys. Fatty acids are mobilised from adipose tissue, some are used peripherally but most are taken up by the liver. Here they are oxidized to provide energy or re-esterified to triglycerides and phospholipids, and deposited in hepatocytes or released into the blood as very low density lipoproteins. These very low density lipoproteins are the cause of lipaemic plasma in hyperlipaemic ponies. Hypoglycaemia reduces insulin response, compounding the problem by increasing peripheral lipid mobilisation and decreasing removal of triglyercides from the circulating blood. Insulin resistance has been reported to be a factor in many cases of hyperlipaemia but affected animals may aslo have a normal insulin response.

Metabolic acidosis can occur in the terminal stages of the disease and is a poor prognostic indicator. Secondary laminitis is a common complicating factor.

==Signalment==
Occurs most commonly in '''Shetland''' and '''miniture ponies''' but has also been reported in horses; it is also relatively common in [[Hyperlipaemia - Donkey|donkeys]] and follows the same pathogenesis.

Affected animals are usually but not consistently obese and the condition occurs in animals which are in a negative energy balance, most frequently due to pregnancy, lactation, [[Colic in Horses|colic]] or chronic disease.

==Diagnosis==
Visual inspection of plasma is usually sufficient to diagnose the condition, in affected animals the serum will be turbid and cloudy with elevated triglyceride concertrations (5.7mmol/L). Liver enzymes, bilirubin and bile acid concentrations are often elevated and there may be a concurrent azotaemia.

===Clinical Signs===
*Depression
*Anorexia
*Ataxia
*Diarrhoea
*Peripheral oedema

===Biochemistry===
*Elevated liver enzymes, AST AP GGT
*Elevated bile acids
*Hypoglycaemia
*Hypoalbuminaemia
*Azoteamia

==Pathology==
Liver biopsy shows fatty infiltration of hepatocytes.

Post mortem exam reveals lipaemic serum, and a pale enlarged friable liver with a greasy surface when cut.

==Treatment==
Treatment must be prompt and aggressive.
Nutritional support is the most important part of treatment. Constant slow infusion of glucose IV (dextrose 5%) should be given initially. Followed by protamine zinc insulin and glucose or high energy gruel based on barley or oats given by stomach tube and supportive amino acids. Heparin may be given in an attempt to reduce plasma triglycerides but will not correct the underlying cause and may alter haemostasis.

==Prognosis==
Prognosis is poor.

{{Learning
|Vetstream = [https://www.vetstream.com/equis/Content/Disease/dis00329.asp Hyperlipemia syndrome]
|literature search = [http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title%3A%28Hyperlipaemia%29+AND+od%3A%28horses%29 Hyperlipaemia in horses publications]
}}

==References==
* Knottenbelt, D.C. '''A Handbook of Equine Medicine for Final Year Students''' ''University of Liverpool''
*Rose, R. J. and Hodgson, D. R. (2000) '''Manual of Equine Practice''' (Second Edition) Saunders.

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/gastroenterology-and-nutrition/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Liver_-_Degenerative_Pathology]][[Category:Alimentary Diseases - Horse]]
[[Category:Expert_Review]]

Haematopinus eurysternus

2023-01-09T14:12:08Z

Fiorecastro:

{{Taxobox
|name =''Haematopinus eurysternus
|kingdom =
|phylum =
|class = [[Insecta]]
|sub-class =
|order = [[Phthiraptera]]
|super-family =
|family = Haematopinidae
|sub-family =
|genus =
|species =''Haematopinus eurysternus
}}
Also known as: '''''Short-nosed louse

==Introduction==
''Haematopinus eurysternus'' is a [[:Category:Sucking Lice|'''sucking louse''']] of cattle.

===Identification===
''Haematopinus eurysternus'' is one of the largest louse currently seen on domestic mammals, at around 4mm in length. The abdomen is dark blue and the head and thorax is a greyish yellow. The eggs have a very thick outer shell, and are white in colour.

===Life Cycle===
The females lay one egg per day for around 2 weeks, which is their approximate lifespan. The eggs are sticky and glue themselves to the hairs of the host, in this case, cattle. The eggs hatch in 1-2 weeks, transforming into nymphs. Nymphs then transform into mature adults about 14 days later. The female will then begin to lay eggs, and infect the host.

{{Learning
|literature search = [http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?rowId=1&options1=AND&q1=%22Haematopinus+eurysternus%22&occuring1=title&rowId=2&options2=AND&q2=&occuring2=freetext&rowId=3&options3=AND&q3=&occuring3=freetext&x=66&y=15&publishedstart=yyyy&publishedend=yyyy&calendarInput=yyyy-mm-dd&la=any&it=any&show=all ''Haematopinus eurysternus'' publications]
}}

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/parasitology/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Lice_-_Cattle]]
[[Category:Sucking Lice]]

[[Category:Expert_Review - Parasites]]

Cobalt Deficiency - Sheep

2023-01-09T14:10:57Z

Fiorecastro:

Also Known As – '''''Cobalamin Deficiency — Vitamin B12 Deficiency — Secondary Vitamin B12 Deficiency — Ill Thrift — Cobalt deficiency anaemia — Wasting Disease — Coastal Disease — Ovine White Liver Disease — Fatty Liver Disease'''''

==Introduction==
Cobalt is required by the ruminant for the '''synthesis of Vitamin B12 – Cobalamin – by the rumenal microflora'''. Thus a diet deficient in cobalt causes a '''secondary deficiency in B12''' which is required for the '''metabolism of propionic acid by the liver for energy production''' via the enzyme '''Methylmalonyl CoA mutase'''. Poor utilisation of propionate then leads to '''reduced appetite and subsequent '''"ill thrift"''' - the generic condition in which '''production and growth are impaired''' in affected animals. B12 is also used for the metabolism of some sulphur containing amino acids which are then used for '''wool growth'''. <ref name="Sargison"> Sargison, N (2008) '''Sheep Flock Health: A Planned Approach''', ''Blackwell Publishing, Oxford'', pp207-213</ref> Thus, cobalt deficient animals often also have poor fleece quality. B12 also has roles in the [[Erythropoiesis#Nutritional factors|production of new erythrocytes]].

The concentration of cobalt in '''crops and forages is highly variable''' and depends on a variety of factors including '''soil concentration, plant species rate of growth, soil pH and drainage'''. Soils are generally considered deficient in cobalt if they contain '''less than 2 parts per million'''.<ref> Haskell, S (2008) '''Blackwell’s Five-Minute Veterinary Consult:Ruminant'''. ''Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford'', p89</ref>

==Distribution==
Cobalt deficient soils are '''widely distributed''' across the globe and thus the condition affects sheep internationally, including the UK, Australia, New Zealand and North America. Incidence is higher in coastal areas hence its common name, "Coastal disease".

==Signalment==
'''Sheep are most susceptible''' to cobalt/cobalamin deficiency but cattle, goats and deer can also be affected. This may be partly due to their use of it in optimal wool growth.<ref name="Sargison" />

'''Growing lambs''' are most likely to be clinically affected as their '''requirements are highest'''. Pre-ruminant animals have a low requirement for cobalt due to their reliance on glucose as an energy source (rather than propionate) and thus the condition is rarely seen in those younger than 5 weeks. B12 is also present in large amounts in colostrum but far less in milk.

==Clinical Signs==
'''Retarded growth, muscular weakness, anaemia, ketosis, poor fleece and poor body condition score''' are the non-specific hallmarks of the deficiency, usually seen in lambs. A '''mild conjunctivitis''' is also common. '''[[Anaemia]]''' develops and may be clinical in severe cases.

Deficiency in pregnant sheep has been associated with '''poor milk production and high lamb mortality'''.<ref name="Sargison" />

There is also a syndrome known as '''Ovine White Liver Disease''' which causes '''fatty liver degeneration''' which then leads to subsequent liver failure, '''[[Hepatic Encephalopathy|hepatic encephalopathy]] and [[Photosensitisation|photosensitisation]]'''. This is caused by the accumulation of methylmalonic acid in the absence of adequate cobalt, which is then converted into branch chain fatty acids.

==Diagnosis==
As many cases are '''multi-factorial and "ill thrift" is very non-specific''' in its presentation, diagnosis is difficult. History or identification of low soil cobalt content of poor clover growth<ref name="Sargison" /> may raise suspicion or predict the onset of an outbreak.

Cobalt and Vitamin B12 can both be measured in serum but this is not without difficulty. Because of this, other tests such as '''methylmalonic acid (MMA) in plasma and urine and formimoglutamic acid (FIGLU)''' were developed and are now often used.<ref name="Radostits"> Radostits, O. M., Gay, C. C., Blood, D. C., Hinchcliff, K. W (2000) '''Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep and Pigs 9th ed'''. ''Elsevier, Edinburgh''</ref> Fresh or formalin fixed liver and serum can also be sent for '''toxicological analysis''' of cobalt concentrations.

Affected animals are often '''anaemic''' but this may not be evident due to the effects of haemoconcentration on haematology values. Liver enzymes (GGT and AST) are also often raised.

Signs of '''fatty liver degeneration''' on pathological examination and histopathology may support clinical signs but this is also non-specific and has many other pathogeneses. Carcasses are generally '''emaciated''' and the '''spleen is often dark due to haemosiderin accumulation'''.<ref name="Radostits" />

Diagnosis can also be made, perhaps most accurately, by '''response to treatment''', ideally as a '''controlled trial''' with an unsupplemented group from the same population as a comparison, but this is often not practical.

==Treatment==
Cobalt can be supplemented by '''spraying pastures and/or top dressing with cobalt salts'''. This can be performed prior to the turn-out of sheep and lambs.

'''Vitamin B12''' can also be given as individual '''injections'''.

'''Intra-rumenal boluses''' releasing cobalt or a mixture of trace elements steadily for over one year<ref name="Sargison" /> are also available as a longterm solution for both treatment and prevention. These should obviously be delivered with care and precision to avoid trauma.

==Control==
'''Monitoring/testing and management''' of soil and forage cobalt content is the foundation for prevention of deficiency with '''appropriate supplementation''' measures implemented both in the short and longterm if pasture cannot be manipulated.

{{Learning
|flashcards = [[Cobalt Deficiency Flashcards]]

[[Sheep Medicine Q&A 04]]
}}

==References==
<references/>
Pugh, D. G (2002) '''Sheep and Goat Medicine,''''' Elsevier Health Sciences ''

Brugère-Picoux, J (2004) '''Maladies des moutons''' (2nd Ed),'' Editions France Agricole''

Merck Veterinary Manual, '''Beef Cattle:Nutritional Requirements''', accessed online 24/07/2011 at http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/182303.htm&word=cobalt

Mitchell, P. J., McOrist, S., Thomas, K. W., McCausland, I. P (1982) '''White liver disease of sheep,''' Australian Veterinary Journal 58, 181-4

Kennedy, S., McConnall, S., Anderson, H., Kennedy, D. G., Young, P. B., Branchflower, W. J (1997) '''Histopathologic and ultrastructural alterations of white liver disease in sheep experimentally depleted of cobalt,''' Veterinary Pathology 34, 575-84

Sargison, N (2001) '''Cobalt deficiency in lambs.''' ''NADIS disease bulletin''

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/herd-health/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category: Lymphoreticular and Haematopoietic Diseases - Cattle]] [[Category: Lymphoreticular and Haematopoietic Diseases - Sheep]] [[Category:Liver_-_Degenerative_Pathology]] [[Category:Liver Diseases - Sheep]] [[Category:Expert Review - Farm Animal]]

Aldosterone

2023-01-09T14:10:04Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==
[[Image:aldosterone.png|right|thumb|250px Benjah 2006 Aldosterone 2D structure.]]

Aldosterone is a '''steroid hormone''' which is secreted from the [[Adrenal Glands - Anatomy & Physiology#Function|'''zona glomerulosa''' of the adrenal gland]]. It has a mineralocorticoid activity and is the most important regulator of plasma potassium. When plasma potassium increases, increased stimulation of aldosterone occurs directly and also as a result of the [[Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System|Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)]]. Aldosterone is also the most important regulator of sodium excretion.

==Release==

The release of aldosterone is stimulated by 3 things;

1. '''Corticotropin (ACTH)'''

2. '''Angiotensin 2'''

3. '''K<sup>+</sup>'''

The release of aldosterone is inhibited by '''[[Atrial Natriuretic Peptide]] (ANP)'''.

Most increases in the concentration of aldosterone can be explained by increases in the [[Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System|'''Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System''']] and therefore, angiotensin 2 and/or by increases in K<sup>+</sup> concentration. ACTH only significantly stimulates the release of aldosterone during severe fluid loss. ANP is secreted in response to sodium/water loading and therefore inhibits aldosterone secretion.

==Action==

Aldosterone diffuses across the cell membrane of the principal cells of the [[Reabsorption and Secretion Along the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct - Anatomy & Physiology#Distal Tubule|distal tubule]] and the [[Reabsorption and Secretion Along the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct - Anatomy & Physiology#Collecting Duct|collecting duct]]. It binds to cytoplasmic receptors and works by altering the gene transcription and increasing the synthesis of proteins. It also affects ATP levels.

===Sodium===

Aldosterone affects sodium entry and transport. It increases the number of apical sodium channels, NaCl co-transporters and Na<sup>+</sup>K<sup>+</sup>ATPase. It also increases the activity of the hydrogen sodium exchanger in the apical membrane and increases membrane permeability and the sodium pump activity. When sodium is reabsorbed, water follows it so the volume of the plasma is altered rather than the concentration of the sodium changing. I.e. '''angiotensin 2''' and '''aldosterone''' affect sodium, but they also affect the extra cellular fluid (ECF) volume, so only the quantity is affected, not the concentration.

[[Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology #Posterior Pituitary Gland |Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)]] and the thirst response also work together to dilute the ECF if the concentrations of sodium is high. So although there is more NaCl, the actual concentration is not really changed. If there was no secretion of aldosterone, a 20kg dog would excrete 15g per 24 hours. At maximal secretion, no significant amount of sodium would be excreted.

===Potassium===

Increased Na<sup>+</sup> / K<sup>+</sup> ATPase pump activity, increases the amount of K<sup>+</sup> influx into cells to reduce plasma K<sup>+</sup>. Potassium is generally not excreted. However, if plasma K<sup>+</sup> is still, high aldosterone is stimulated. This causes potassium secretion and stimulates Na<sup>+</sup> / K<sup>+</sup> ATPases in the basolateral membrane of the principal cells. This results in increased potassium in the cells. Potassium then leaves via the apical leak channels , thanks to the electro-chemical gradient. This is a very tightly regulated system and allows large increase in K<sup>+</sup> to have a miniscule effect on plasma K<sup>+</sup>.

===Hydrogen===

Aldosterone increases hydrogen secretion, by increasing Hydrogen ATPases in the apical membrane of the intercalated cells and by increasing the sodium hydrogen exchanger in the apical membrane of the principal cells.

{{Template:Learning
|flashcards = [[Important Hormonal Regulators of the Kidney - Renal Flash Cards - Anatomy & Physiology|Important Hormonal Regulators of the Kidney]]
}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/endocrinology/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Kidney Hormonal Regulators]][[Category:Endocrine System - Anatomy & Physiology]]
[[Category:A&P Done]]

Stomatitis

2023-01-09T14:09:14Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==

[[File:Stomatitis.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Stomatitis in a cat <small>''© Lisa Milella 2013''</small>]]
Stomatitis is the inflammation of the mucosa lining any structures within the mouth. This may include the lips, cheeks, [[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology|tongue]] and [[Gingiva#Structure and Function of the Gingiva|gingiva]].

Several different types of stomatitis have been described in the dog:
Chronic ulcerative paradental stomatitis which is seen on the buccal mucosa that overlie the teeth, especially in the area of the maxillary canine tooth, fourth premolar and the lateral edge of the tongue. Severe ulceration can occur together with gingival recession.

Ulcerative stomatitis which presents as ulcerations on the margins of the tongue that are common together with a secondary lip-fold dermatitis due to excessive salivation.

Necrotizing stomatitis which is a very painful condition in dogs that may be caused by opportunistic invasion of normal oral flora. Suspected causative organisms include [[Fusobacterium necrophorum|''Fusobacterium'']] and [[:Category:Spirochaetes|spirochaetes]]. Invasion of these organisms is thought to be associated with reduced host resistance.

Uraemic stomatitis which occurs as a result of [[uraemia]] due to renal disease. Severe stomatitis and ulceration of the oral mucosa as well as the margins of the tongue are seen with this condition. The lesions occur due to the bacterial degradation of urea to form ammonia together with dehydration and drying of the oral mucosa that results from renal disease.

Stomatitis in the cat:

Only one form of the disease which is [[Feline Lymphoplasmacytic Gingivitis Stomatitis Complex|Feline lymphoplasmacytic gingivitis stomatitis complex]].

==Signalment==
Both dogs and cats can develop this condition.
Breeds of dog predisposed include the Greyhound, Maltese, Cavalier King Charles, Miniature Schnauzer and Labrador Retriever.

==Diagnosis==
===Clinical Signs===
Include severe halitosis, hypersalivation, thick, ropey saliva, anorexia caused by pain, malaise, pyrexia, weight loss and ulceration and bleeding of the gingiva.

===Oral Examination===
A thorough oral examination under general anaesthesia is often required to aid the diagnosis. Diagnosis is usually made by gross visualisation of the lesions.
The mandibular lymph nodes may also be enlarged.

===Laboratory Tests===
Clinical pathology may be carried out to assess renal function in the case of uraemic stomatitis.
Culture and sensitivity tests may be required to aid diagnosis and enable specific treatment.

===Biopsy===
Often indicated to rule out other diseases such as [[Pemphigus|pemphigus]] or other immunopathies.

===Pathology===
Starts as hyperaemia and oedema of the [[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology|tongue]] or pharynx with mucoid exudate on the surface.
Lymphoid follicles on the [[Soft Palate|soft palate]] may enlarge and proliferate.
Often see white spots due to epithelial hyperplasia and increased mucous secretion, these can be scraped off to leave ordinary mucosa underneath.

==Treatment==
Treatment is both symptomatic to control the clinical signs as well as specific to the cause of the condition. The underlying cause should be sought and treated appropriately.

Thorough teeth cleaning is necessary as well as systemic [[Antibiotics|antibiotics]] (effective against aeobes and anaerobes).
Oral rinses such as chlorhexidine may also be useful.
[[Steroids|Corticosteriods]] have been suggested with cases of chronic ulcerative paradental stomatitis.
Diet modification in cases of renal disease to reduce blood urea levels.
Tooth extraction in the most severely affected area has been suggested.
Resistent lesions in cats have been shown to respond to bovine lactoferrin in some cases.

==Prognosis==
Depends on the underlying cause.

{{Learning
|Vetstream = [https://www.vetstream.com/canis/Content/Disease/dis00627.asp, Ulcerative stomatitis]
|flashcards = [[Veterinary Dentistry Q&A 17]]
|literature search = [http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22Stomatitis%22)&fq=sc:%22ve%22 Stomatitis publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(dogs) Stomatitis in dogs publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(cats) Stomatitis in cats publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(horses) Stomatitis in horses publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(cattle) Stomatitis in cattle publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(sheep) Stomatitis in sheep publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(pigs) Stomatitis in pigs publications]
}}

==References==

Merck & Co (2008) '''The Merck Veterinary Manual'''

Nelson, R.W. and Couto, C.G. (2009) '''Small Animal Internal Medicine (Fourth Edition)''' ''Mosby Elsevier''

Tutt, C., Deeprose, J. and Crossley, D. (2007) '''BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Dentistry (3rd Edition)''' ''BSAVA''

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/gastroenterology-and-nutrition/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Oral_Cavity_and_Gingiva_-_Pathology]]
[[Category:Oral Diseases - Cat]][[Category:Oral Diseases - Dog]]
[[Category:Expert_Review - Small Animal]]
[[Category:Periodontal Conditions]]

Stomatitis

2023-01-09T14:08:56Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==

[[File:Stomatitis.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Stomatitis in a cat <small>''© Lisa Milella 2013''</small>]]
Stomatitis is the inflammation of the mucosa lining any structures within the mouth. This may include the lips, cheeks, [[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology|tongue]] and [[Gingiva#Structure and Function of the Gingiva|gingiva]].

Several different types of stomatitis have been described in the dog:
Chronic ulcerative paradental stomatitis which is seen on the buccal mucosa that overlie the teeth, especially in the area of the maxillary canine tooth, fourth premolar and the lateral edge of the tongue. Severe ulceration can occur together with gingival recession.

Ulcerative stomatitis which presents as ulcerations on the margins of the tongue that are common together with a secondary lip-fold dermatitis due to excessive salivation.

Necrotizing stomatitis which is a very painful condition in dogs that may be caused by opportunistic invasion of normal oral flora. Suspected causative organisms include [[Fusobacterium necrophorum|''Fusobacterium'']] and [[:Category:Spirochaetes|spirochaetes]]. Invasion of these organisms is thought to be associated with reduced host resistance.

Uraemic stomatitis which occurs as a result of [[uraemia]] due to renal disease. Severe stomatitis and ulceration of the oral mucosa as well as the margins of the tongue are seen with this condition. The lesions occur due to the bacterial degradation of urea to form ammonia together with dehydration and drying of the oral mucosa that results from renal disease.

Stomatitis in the cat:

Only one form of the disease which is [[Feline Lymphoplasmacytic Gingivitis Stomatitis Complex|Feline lymphoplasmacytic gingivitis stomatitis complex]].

==Signalment==
Both dogs and cats can develop this condition.
Breeds of dog predisposed include the Greyhound, Maltese, Cavalier King Charles, Miniature Schnauzer and Labrador Retriever.

==Diagnosis==
===Clinical Signs===
Include severe halitosis, hypersalivation, thick, ropey saliva, anorexia caused by pain, malaise, pyrexia, weight loss and ulceration and bleeding of the gingiva.

===Oral Examination===
A thorough oral examination under general anaesthesia is often required to aid the diagnosis. Diagnosis is usually made by gross visualisation of the lesions.
The mandibular lymph nodes may also be enlarged.

===Laboratory Tests===
Clinical pathology may be carried out to assess renal function in the case of uraemic stomatitis.
Culture and sensitivity tests may be required to aid diagnosis and enable specific treatment.

===Biopsy===
Often indicated to rule out other diseases such as [[Pemphigus|pemphigus]] or other immunopathies.

===Pathology===
Starts as hyperaemia and oedema of the [[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology|tongue]] or pharynx with mucoid exudate on the surface.
Lymphoid follicles on the [[Soft Palate|soft palate]] may enlarge and proliferate.
Often see white spots due to epithelial hyperplasia and increased mucous secretion, these can be scraped off to leave ordinary mucosa underneath.

==Treatment==
Treatment is both symptomatic to control the clinical signs as well as specific to the cause of the condition. The underlying cause should be sought and treated appropriately.

Thorough teeth cleaning is necessary as well as systemic [[Antibiotics|antibiotics]] (effective against aeobes and anaerobes).
Oral rinses such as chlorhexidine may also be useful.
[[Steroids|Corticosteriods]] have been suggested with cases of chronic ulcerative paradental stomatitis.
Diet modification in cases of renal disease to reduce blood urea levels.
Tooth extraction in the most severely affected area has been suggested.
Resistent lesions in cats have been shown to respond to bovine lactoferrin in some cases.

==Prognosis==
Depends on the underlying cause.

{{Learning
|Vetstream = [https://www.vetstream.com/canis/Content/Disease/dis00627.asp, Ulcerative stomatitis]
|flashcards = [[Veterinary Dentistry Q&A 17]]
|literature search = [http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22Stomatitis%22)&fq=sc:%22ve%22 Stomatitis publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(dogs) Stomatitis in dogs publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(cats) Stomatitis in cats publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(horses) Stomatitis in horses publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(cattle) Stomatitis in cattle publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(sheep) Stomatitis in sheep publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(pigs) Stomatitis in pigs publications]
}}

==References==

Merck & Co (2008) '''The Merck Veterinary Manual'''

Nelson, R.W. and Couto, C.G. (2009) '''Small Animal Internal Medicine (Fourth Edition)''' ''Mosby Elsevier''

Tutt, C., Deeprose, J. and Crossley, D. (2007) '''BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Dentistry (3rd Edition)''' ''BSAVA''

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/gastroenterology-and-nutrition/feed</rss>

[[Category:Oral_Cavity_and_Gingiva_-_Pathology]]
[[Category:Oral Diseases - Cat]][[Category:Oral Diseases - Dog]]
[[Category:Expert_Review - Small Animal]]
[[Category:Periodontal Conditions]]

Stomatitis

2023-01-09T14:07:54Z

Fiorecastro:

==Introduction==

[[File:Stomatitis.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Stomatitis in a cat <small>''© Lisa Milella 2013''</small>]]
Stomatitis is the inflammation of the mucosa lining any structures within the mouth. This may include the lips, cheeks, [[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology|tongue]] and [[Gingiva#Structure and Function of the Gingiva|gingiva]].

Several different types of stomatitis have been described in the dog:
Chronic ulcerative paradental stomatitis which is seen on the buccal mucosa that overlie the teeth, especially in the area of the maxillary canine tooth, fourth premolar and the lateral edge of the tongue. Severe ulceration can occur together with gingival recession.

Ulcerative stomatitis which presents as ulcerations on the margins of the tongue that are common together with a secondary lip-fold dermatitis due to excessive salivation.

Necrotizing stomatitis which is a very painful condition in dogs that may be caused by opportunistic invasion of normal oral flora. Suspected causative organisms include [[Fusobacterium necrophorum|''Fusobacterium'']] and [[:Category:Spirochaetes|spirochaetes]]. Invasion of these organisms is thought to be associated with reduced host resistance.

Uraemic stomatitis which occurs as a result of [[uraemia]] due to renal disease. Severe stomatitis and ulceration of the oral mucosa as well as the margins of the tongue are seen with this condition. The lesions occur due to the bacterial degradation of urea to form ammonia together with dehydration and drying of the oral mucosa that results from renal disease.

Stomatitis in the cat:

Only one form of the disease which is [[Feline Lymphoplasmacytic Gingivitis Stomatitis Complex|Feline lymphoplasmacytic gingivitis stomatitis complex]].

==Signalment==
Both dogs and cats can develop this condition.
Breeds of dog predisposed include the Greyhound, Maltese, Cavalier King Charles, Miniature Schnauzer and Labrador Retriever.

==Diagnosis==
===Clinical Signs===
Include severe halitosis, hypersalivation, thick, ropey saliva, anorexia caused by pain, malaise, pyrexia, weight loss and ulceration and bleeding of the gingiva.

===Oral Examination===
A thorough oral examination under general anaesthesia is often required to aid the diagnosis. Diagnosis is usually made by gross visualisation of the lesions.
The mandibular lymph nodes may also be enlarged.

===Laboratory Tests===
Clinical pathology may be carried out to assess renal function in the case of uraemic stomatitis.
Culture and sensitivity tests may be required to aid diagnosis and enable specific treatment.

===Biopsy===
Often indicated to rule out other diseases such as [[Pemphigus|pemphigus]] or other immunopathies.

===Pathology===
Starts as hyperaemia and oedema of the [[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology|tongue]] or pharynx with mucoid exudate on the surface.
Lymphoid follicles on the [[Soft Palate|soft palate]] may enlarge and proliferate.
Often see white spots due to epithelial hyperplasia and increased mucous secretion, these can be scraped off to leave ordinary mucosa underneath.

==Treatment==
Treatment is both symptomatic to control the clinical signs as well as specific to the cause of the condition. The underlying cause should be sought and treated appropriately.

Thorough teeth cleaning is necessary as well as systemic [[Antibiotics|antibiotics]] (effective against aeobes and anaerobes).
Oral rinses such as chlorhexidine may also be useful.
[[Steroids|Corticosteriods]] have been suggested with cases of chronic ulcerative paradental stomatitis.
Diet modification in cases of renal disease to reduce blood urea levels.
Tooth extraction in the most severely affected area has been suggested.
Resistent lesions in cats have been shown to respond to bovine lactoferrin in some cases.

==Prognosis==
Depends on the underlying cause.

{{Learning
|Vetstream = [https://www.vetstream.com/canis/Content/Disease/dis00627.asp, Ulcerative stomatitis]
|flashcards = [[Veterinary Dentistry Q&A 17]]
|literature search = [http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22Stomatitis%22)&fq=sc:%22ve%22 Stomatitis publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(dogs) Stomatitis in dogs publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(cats) Stomatitis in cats publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(horses) Stomatitis in horses publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(cattle) Stomatitis in cattle publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(sheep) Stomatitis in sheep publications]

[http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=title:(%22stomatitis%22)+AND+od:(pigs) Stomatitis in pigs publications]
}}

==References==

Merck & Co (2008) '''The Merck Veterinary Manual'''

Nelson, R.W. and Couto, C.G. (2009) '''Small Animal Internal Medicine (Fourth Edition)''' ''Mosby Elsevier''

Tutt, C., Deeprose, J. and Crossley, D. (2007) '''BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Dentistry (3rd Edition)''' ''BSAVA''

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/dentistry/feed</rss>

[[Category:Oral_Cavity_and_Gingiva_-_Pathology]]
[[Category:Oral Diseases - Cat]][[Category:Oral Diseases - Dog]]
[[Category:Expert_Review - Small Animal]]
[[Category:Periodontal Conditions]]

Snake Injection

2023-01-09T14:07:05Z

Fiorecastro:

[[Image:Good_injection_photo.jpg|350px|thumb|right|'''Surgical preparation of the skin and adequate restraint are important whatever the method''' © RVC]]
==How to inject snakes==
Parenteral methods of treatment include intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous and intracoelomic. Ensure that the snake is adequately hydrated prior to the injection. Give the injections between the [[Snake Skin|scales]] and use a small gauge needle.
* Subcutaneous: the site for subcutaneous injections is the skin lateral to the ribs. SC injections are the route of choice in small snakes.
** '''For more information, see''' [[Snake Skin|snake skin]].
* Intramuscular: the site for intramuscular injections is the musculature lateral to the spinous processes.
** '''For more information, see''' [[Snake Musculoskeletal System|snake musculoskeletal system]].
* Intravenous: the site for intravenous injections is the ventral tail vein.
* Intracoelomic: snakes do not have extendible cavities like lizards. Only small amounts can be given ICo and should not be given if space-occupying lesions are present.

{{Learning
|literature search = [http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=((title:(snake)+OR+ab:(snake)+OR+od:(snake)))+AND+((title:(injection+technique))) Snake injection technique publications]
}}

{{review}}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/internal-medicine/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Snake_Procedures|A]]

Placenta Endocrine Function - Anatomy & Physiology

2023-01-09T14:06:28Z

Fiorecastro:

The Placenta is a hugely important endocrine organ, producing many [[Hormones - Anatomy & Physiology|hormones]] which affect the status of pregnancy and the maternal physiology.

{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
|+ ''Hormones of the Placenta''
!Hormone
!Production and Regulation
!Action
|-
|Prostaglandin F2a
|Produced towards the end of pregnancy in increasing amounts to allow for parturition.
|Causes luteolysis and promotes uterine contractions.
|-
|Progesterone
|The Placenta takes over Progesterone production from the Corpus Luteum to maintain the pregnancy.
|Maintains the pregnancy by thickening the cervix, depressing the maternal immune response and preventing ovulation. It also promotes mammary growth.
|-
|Oestrogen
|Oestrogen levels rise throughout pregnancy as the placenta grows.
|Stimulate the growth of the myometrium, promote mammary development and suppress gonadotrophin release from the [[Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology|pituitary gland]].
|-
|Placental Lactogen
|This is related to [[Lactation - Endocrine Control - Anatomy & Physiology|Prolactin]] and [[Pituitary Growth Hormone - Anatomy & Physiology|Growth hormone]], and is produced by the placenta and uterus.
|Promotes growth and differentiation of mammary tissue. Identified in primates, ruminants and rodents.
|-
|Equine Chorionic Gonadotropin (eCG)
|This is produced by foetal trophoblast cells, and is actually the same molecule as equine LH.
|Prevents luteal regression and is thus the signal for [[Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy - Anatomy & Physiology|Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy]] in equids.
|-
|Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
|This is produced by foetal trophoblast cells.
|Prevents luteal regression and is thus the signal for [[Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy - Anatomy & Physiology|Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy]] in primates.
|}

==Webinars==
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/urogenital-and-reproduction/webinars/feed</rss>

[[Category:Endocrine System - Anatomy & Physiology]][[Category:Pregnancy and Parturition]]