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== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

Apergillosis is a disease of the respiratory system caused by several ''[[Aspergillus spp.]]''. ''Aspergillus fumigatus'' is the most frequently encountered species in domestic animals but ''Aspergillus tereus'' has also been reported. ''Aspergillus'' is a ubiquitous saprophyte and is found worldwide. It is also a component of normal hair, skin and mucosal flora in both humans and animals. Commonly affected species include birds, dogs, cats, horses and cattle but the disease has been reported in many other wild and domestic species.  

Apergillosis is a disease of the respiratory system caused by several ''[[Aspergillus spp.]]''. ''Aspergillus fumigatus'' is the most frequently encountered species in domestic animals but ''Aspergillus tereus'' and ''Aspergillus flavus'' have also been reported. ''Aspergillus'' is a ubiquitous saprophyte and is found worldwide. It is also a component of normal hair, skin and mucosal flora in both humans and animals. Commonly affected species include birds, dogs, cats, horses and cattle but the disease has been reported in many other wild and domestic species.  

== Pathogenesis ==

== Pathogenesis ==

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Three forms of the disease have been reported in avian species; a diffuse infection of the air sacs; a diffuse pneumonic form and a nodular form involving the lungs. In chicks and poults the disease is known as 'brooder pneumonia' and may affect many birds in a flock. It is a very common disease, especially in pet birds due to the poor environments in which the birds are kept, combined with the anatomy of their respiratory system. Animals become infected due to inhalation of spores from contaminated feed or litter. These spores remain lodged in the respiratory system without causing clinical disease until the bird is stressed. Disease normally occurs in the syrinx or the air sacs. Clinical signs include dyspnoea, diarrhoea, listlessness, pyrexia, loss of appetite and loss of condition. Seizures and torticollis may occasionally occur if infection disseminates to the brain.

Three forms of the disease have been reported in avian species; a diffuse infection of the air sacs; a diffuse pneumonic form and a nodular form involving the lungs. In chicks and poults the disease is known as 'brooder pneumonia' and may affect many birds in a flock. It is a very common disease, especially in pet birds due to the poor environments in which the birds are kept, combined with the anatomy of their respiratory system. Animals become infected due to inhalation of spores from contaminated feed or litter. These spores remain lodged in the respiratory system without causing clinical disease until the bird is stressed. Disease normally occurs in the syrinx or the air sacs. Clinical signs include dyspnoea, diarrhoea, listlessness, pyrexia, loss of appetite and loss of condition. Seizures and torticollis may occasionally occur if infection disseminates to the brain. Eggs may also be infected, with the fungal infection growing in the air cell of the membrane within the egg. Embryos may die before hatching or be weak and dyspnoeic after hatching. Occasionally, nervous system problems or diarrhoea are found in birds that survive to hatch.

== Diagnosis ==

== Diagnosis ==

=== Birds ===

=== Birds ===

'''Endoscopy''' allows visualisation of the fungus and is the fastest and simplest way to obtain a tentative diagnosis. '''Culture''' of the lesions is required for definitive diagnosis.

'''Endoscopy''' allows visualisation of the fungus and is the fastest and simplest way to obtain a tentative diagnosis. '''Culture''' of the lesions is required for definitive diagnosis. Post-mortem findings include bronchial or tracheal plugs, air cell plaques or small yellow nodules in the lungs. When ''Aspergillus'' infection is suspected in the embryo positive culture of lesions on the air cell membrane, lungs, air sacs or air passages is required for definitive diagnosis.

== Treatment ==

== Treatment ==

=== Birds ===

=== Birds ===

Birds should be treated with both '''anti-fungal drugs''' and '''F10 disinfectant''', delivered '''nebulisation'''. This treatment should continue for a minimum of 6 weeks up to a period of 6 months, therefore cost considerations may need to be discussed with the owners. Following the cessation of treatment, '''repeat endoscopy''' should be repeated to ensure the disease has resolved. Aspergillosis of the syrinx may present as an emergency due to obstruction of the airway. This required surgical removal of the fungal growths. An air sac tube may be placed to stabilise the bird prior to planned surgery, and endoscopy should be performed on the lungs and air sacs to assess the spread of the fungus and provide a prognosis (poor with further spread) before surgery is performed. A '''low dust level''', '''high quality feed''' and frequent '''F10 fogging''' can help to '''prevent''' the disease.

Birds should be treated with both anti-fungal drugs and F10 disinfectant, delivered nebulisation. This treatment should continue for a minimum of 6 weeks up to a period of 6 months, therefore cost considerations may need to be discussed with the owners. Following the cessation of treatment, repeat endoscopy should be repeated to ensure the disease has resolved. Aspergillosis of the syrinx may present as an emergency due to obstruction of the airway. This required surgical removal of the fungal growths. An air sac tube may be placed to stabilise the bird prior to planned surgery, and endoscopy should be performed on the lungs and air sacs to assess the spread of the fungus and provide a prognosis (poor with further spread) before surgery is performed. A low dust level, high quality feed and frequent F10 fogging can help to prevent the disease. There is currently no recommended treatment for eggs infected with aspergillosis, therefore efforts should be concentrated on prevention. This is especially important in air-forced incubators, where aspergillosis can be a serious problem. Incubators and hatchers should be cleaned and fumigated between batches of eggs, and an 'all in, all out' system should be in operation. UV sterilization of eggs prior to incubation and sanitizing dips or washes may be used to reduce the chances of infection. Eggs should be examined for cracks and weighed a regular intervals, and dead eggs should be removed immediately as infection of viable eggs by dead Aspergillus-infected eggs can occur. Also, eggs from damp or wet nests should not be incubated.

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*Barr, S. C., Bowman, D. D. (2006) '''The 5-minute Veterinary Consult Clinical Companion: canine and feline infectious diseases and parasitology''' ''Wiley-Blackwell''  

*Barr, S. C., Bowman, D. D. (2006) '''The 5-minute Veterinary Consult Clinical Companion: canine and feline infectious diseases and parasitology''' ''Wiley-Blackwell''  

*Carter, G. R., Wise, D. J. (2004) '''Essentials of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology''' ''Wiley-Blackwell''  

*Carter, G. R., Wise, D. J. (2004) '''Essentials of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology''' ''Wiley-Blackwell''  

*Ettinger, S. J. (2000) '''Pocket Companion to Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine''' ''Elsevier Health Sciences''  

*Ettinger, S. J. (2000) '''Pocket Companion to Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine''' ''Elsevier Health Sciences''  

*Muller, G. H., Scott, D. W., Kirk, R. W., Miller, W. H., Griffin, C. E. (2001) '''Muller and Kirk's Small Animal Dermatology''' ''Elsevier Health Sciences''

*Muller, G. H., Scott, D. W., Kirk, R. W., Miller, W. H., Griffin, C. E. (2001) '''Muller and Kirk's Small Animal Dermatology''' ''Elsevier Health Sciences''

 

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[[Category:To Do - Manson]]

[[Category:To Do - Manson]]

[[Category:To Do - Siobhan Brade]]

[[Category:To Do - Siobhan Brade]]