Difference between revisions of "Bones - Anatomy & Physiology"

Revision as of 11:02, 16 July 2008

BACK TO MUSCULOSKELETAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Bone comprises the structure of the skeletal system and provide lever arms for locomotion. Bone also plays important roles in maintaining mineral homeostasis as well as providing the environment for hematopoesis in marrow.

Development of Bone and Cartilage

Osteogenesis
- Intramembranous Ossification
  - Forms the flat bones of skull and mandible
  - No cartilaginous precursor: mesenchyme forms bone directly
    - Mesenchyme condenses, differentiates to pre-osteoblasts, then osteoblasts
    - Osteoblasts synthesize osteoid (collagen and proteoglycans)
    - Mineralization and Bone Spicule formation (spicules produce spongy bone)
    - Appositional Growth: laid down on the exterior (vs interior) surface of developing bone
  - Increasing association with blood vessels
  - Bone Marrow formed by mesenchyme between bone and blood vessels
- Endochondral Ossification
  - Responsible for embryonic bone formation as well as growth in length
  - Via cartilaginous precursor:
    - Mesenchyme condenses to form bone outline
    - Core cells differentiate to chondroycytes and begin secreting cartilage matrix
    - Peripheral condensation forms perichondrium
    - Interstitial (length) and Appositional (width) growth
    - Central cells in developing diaphysis mature and hypertrophy
    - Matrix surrounding most mature chondrocytes calcifies
    - Perichondrium differentiates to osteoblasts
  - Capillary invasion to central core, forming trabecular bone
Bone Growth and Remodeling
- Short bones: endochondral ossification continues in diaphysis until only cartilage rim remains
- Long bones: secondary center of ossification develops in epiphyses
  - Epiphyseal Growth Plate: transverse disc of cartilate between the two ossification centers, allows longitudinal growth to continue to maturity, then closes
- Primary bone has not yet been remodelled
  - Contains less mineral and more randomly arranged collagen fibers, trabecular organization
- Remodelling occurs by Haversian canals
  - Osteoclasts dig out canal, followed by blood vessel invasion
  - Concentric lamellae laid down
  - Phased resorption happens concurrently

Types of Bone

Long Bone
- Found in the limbs and act as levers for locomotion
- An elongated diaphysis (shaft) and two epiphyses (ends), each of which encases a center for ossification

Short Bone
- Found in places of articulation, such as the carpus and tarsus
- All dimensions are relatively equal, generally signifying one center of ossification

Flat Bone
- Found in the skull, pelvic girdle, and scapula
- Expand in two directions, with a broad surface for attachment of large muscle masses and protection of underlying structures

Composition of Bone

Bone is comprised of:

Matrix:
- Organic component: "Collagen I", which resists tension
- Bone-specific proteins: Osteonectin, Osteopontin, Osteocalcin
- Inorganic component: Calcium, Phosphorus, Bicarbonate, Citrate, Potassium, Magnesium, Sodium, which provide rigidity

Cells:
- Osteoblasts: single layer of cuboidal cells which synthesize bone extracellular matrix (ECM)
- Osteocytes: osteoblasts embedded in their own matrix; reside within lacunae and are interconnected via channels forming canaliculi
  - Canaliculi create connections to form a huge neural-like junctional organization
- Osteoclasts: giant (multinucleate monocytes) cells which act to resorb bone ECM

All mammalian bone is organized as lamellated sheets:

Cortical (compact) bone
- Sheath covers external surface of long bone, thicker in shaft and thins over epiphyses
- Comprised of thin lamallae in a series of concentric tubes arranged around small central canals (collectively known as an osteone)

Cancellous (spongy, or trabecular) bone
- Forms the hematopoeitic center of epiphyses
- Stacks of parallel or concentrically stacked sheets arranged as rods, plates, and arches

Medullary Cavity and Cancellous Interstitium: bone marrow storage and production
- Red Marrow: richly vascularized, gelatinous tissue with hematopoeitic properties found abundantly in young animals
- Yellow Marrow: fat infiltration converts red marrow to yellow, causing hematopoeitic properties to dwindle

Biomechanics of Bone

Structure and Function of Cartilage

Function: resist compression, provide resilience and support at sites where flexibility is desired
Structure:
- Chondrocytes: reside within lacunae within ECM synthesizing matrix
- Type II Collagen (except fibrocartilage), proteoglycans with associated glycosaminoglycans and hyaluronic acid
- 75% Water
- Avascular: nutrients/waste move via diffusion
- Perichondrium is composed of two layers:
  - Fibrous: outer, dense irregular connective tissue
  - Chondrogenic: inner, flattened cells that differentiate to chondrocytes
Types of Cartilage
- Hyaline Cartilage
  - Most abundant in the body: glassy, translucent sheen
  - Found in nose, trachea, bronchi, ventral ends of ribs and sternal attachmont
  - Surrounded by perichondrium
  - At sites of articulation, providing resilient frictionless surface that resists compression
  - Found at epiphyseal growth plates
- Elastic Cartilage
  - Yellow appearance
  - found in auricular cartilage, larynx, eustacian tube, and epiglottis
  - Surrounded by perichondrium
  - Resiliance with added flexibility
- Fibrocartilage
  - More collagen (Type I) and less proteglycans than hyaline
  - Resists high tensional strain
  - Often in transition with hyaline
  - Found in intervertebral discs, tendon/ligament attachment to bone, joint menisci, and articular surface of some joints (such as the temperomandibular)
  - NO perichondrium

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-{{OpenPagesTop}}
+<big><center>[[Musculoskeletal System - Anatomy & Physiology|'''BACK TO MUSCULOSKELETAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY''']]</center></big>
-==Overview==
-[[Image:Horse Skeleton.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Horse Skeleton - Copyright Nottingham]]
-[[Image:Growth plate.jpg|right|thumb|250px|<small><center>Growth plate (Image sourced from Bristol Biomed Image Archive with permission)</center></small>]]
-[[Image:Growth plate closer.jpg|right|thumb|250px|<small><center>Growth plate magnified (Image sourced from Bristol Biomed Image Archive with permission)</center></small>]]
-[[Image:Aspinall Slide1.JPG|thumb|right|250px|<small>Image from [http://www.elsevierhealth.co.uk/veterinary-nursing/spe-60136/ Aspinall, The Complete Textbook of Veterinary Nursing], Elsevier Health Sciences, ''All rights reserved''</small>]]
-Bone comprises the structure of the skeletal system and provides lever arms for locomotion. Bone also plays important roles in maintaining mineral homeostasis, as well as providing the environment for [[Haematopoiesis - Overview|hematopoesis]] in [[Bone Marrow|marrow]].
-'''Short bones''' - Endochondral ossification continues in the diaphysis, until only the cartilage rim remains.
+Bone comprises the structure of the skeletal system and provide lever arms for locomotion.  Bone also plays important roles in maintaining mineral homeostasis as well as providing the environment for hematopoesis in marrow.
+==Development of Bone and Cartilage==
-'''Long bones''' - A secondary center of ossification develops in the epiphyses.
+*Osteogenesis
+**'''Intramembranous Ossification'''
-See [[Bone & Cartilage Development - Anatomy & Physiology|Bone and Cartilage Development]]
+***Forms the '''flat''' bones of skull and mandible
+***No cartilaginous precursor: mesenchyme forms bone directly
+****Mesenchyme condenses, differentiates to pre-osteoblasts, then osteoblasts
-==Bone Growth==
+****Osteoblasts synthesize osteoid (collagen and proteoglycans)
+****Mineralization and Bone Spicule formation (spicules produce spongy bone)
-===Length===
+****Appositional Growth: laid down on the exterior (vs interior) surface of developing bone
-The '''epiphyseal growth plate (EGP, physis)''' is a transverse disc of cartilage between the two ossification centers and allows the bone to continue to grow in length after birth. It then closes. The EGP is a region of continuous chondroblast differentiation and maturation and can be divided into five zones:
+***Increasing association with blood vessels
+***Bone Marrow formed by mesenchyme between bone and blood vessels
-# '''Germinal Zone''' - chondroblast division at a low rate, and self renewal.
+**'''Endochondral Ossification'''
-# '''Proliferation Zone''' - chondroblast division at a fast rate.
+***Responsible for embryonic bone formation as well as growth in length
-# '''Maturation Zone''' - chondroblast differentiation into chondrocytes.
+***Via cartilaginous precursor:
-# '''Hypertrophic Zone''' - chondrocytes enlarge and then die.
+****Mesenchyme condenses to form bone outline
-# '''Dead cells''' become the matrix for bone growth.
+****Core cells differentiate to chondroycytes and begin secreting cartilage matrix
+****Peripheral condensation forms perichondrium
-===Girth===
+****Interstitial (length) and Appositional (width) growth
+****Central cells in developing diaphysis mature and hypertrophy
-The '''periosteum''' lines the outer surface of the diaphysis of the bone. It has a cellular inner layer, consisting of osteoblasts, and a fibrous outer layer. The '''endosteum''' lines the inner surface of the diaphysis of the bone. It contains osteoblasts ''and'' osteoclasts. Bone growth occurs by a shift in the equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts on the outside in the periosteum add bone to increase the bone's diameter. Osteoclasts on the inside in the endosteum remove this bone to maintain the bone diameter. When osteoclasts start removing less bone, or osteoblasts start adding more bone, the girth increases.
+****Matrix surrounding most mature chondrocytes calcifies
+****Perichondrium differentiates to osteoblasts
+***Capillary invasion to central core, forming trabecular bone
-==Bone Remodeling==
+*Bone Growth and Remodeling
-[[Image:Haversian system.jpg|right|thumb|250px|<small><center>Haversian system (Courtesy of RVC Histology images)</center></small>]]
+**Short bones: endochondral ossification continues in diaphysis until only cartilage rim remains
-'''Primary''' bone has not yet been '''remodelled'''. It contains less mineral and more randomly arranged collagen fibers, known as trabecular organization. Remodelling of bone occurs by '''haversian canals'''. The osteoclasts dig out the canal longitudinally through the bone connecting with bone marrow cavity and periosteum. They are followed by anastamosing and branching blood vessels. Concentric bony lamellae are laid down with rows of interconnected lacunae containing '''osteocytes''' within. The osteocytes communicate by channels in young bones. Phased resorption happens concurrently.
+**Long bones: secondary center of ossification develops in epiphyses
+***'''Epiphyseal Growth Plate''': transverse disc of cartilate between the two ossification centers, allows longitudinal growth to continue to maturity, then closes
-'''Haversion canals + lamellae + osteocytes = Haversion system'''
+**'''Primary''' bone has not yet been '''remodelled'''
+***Contains less mineral and more randomly arranged collagen fibers, trabecular organization
+**Remodelling occurs by '''Haversian canals'''
+***Osteoclasts dig out canal, followed by blood vessel invasion
+***Concentric lamellae laid down
+***Phased resorption happens concurrently
 ==Types of Bone==
-. '''Long Bone'''
+*'''Long Bone'''
+**Found in the limbs and act as levers for locomotion
-Found in the limbs and act as levers for locomotion. An elongated '''diaphysis''' (shaft) and two '''epiphyses''' (ends), each of which encases a center for ossification.
+**An elongated '''diaphysis''' (shaft) and two '''epiphyses''' (ends), each of which encases a center for ossification
-. '''Short Bone'''
-Found in places of articulation, such as the carpus and tarsus. All dimensions are relatively equal, generally signifying one center of ossification.
-. '''Flat Bone'''
-Found in the skull, pelvic girdle, and scapula. It expands in two directions, with a broad surface for attachment of large muscle masses and protection of underlying structures.
+*'''Short Bone'''
+**Found in places of articulation, such as the carpus and tarsus
+**All dimensions are relatively equal, generally signifying one center of ossification
-. '''Irregular Bone'''
+*'''Flat Bone'''
+**Found in the skull, pelvic girdle, and scapula
-Found in the vertebrae.
+**Expand in two directions, with a broad surface for attachment of large muscle masses and protection of underlying structures
-. '''Sesamoid Bone'''
-Eg. Patella and navicular bone. Found within tendons, where they change direction over prominences that would otherwise cause damage. They form '''synovial joints''' with major bones with which they are in contact. They also serve to displace tendon from the axis of the joint, increasing the leverage exerted by the muscle.
-. '''Splanchnic Bone'''
-Develop in soft organs remote from skeletal connection, eg. '''os penis'''.
-. '''Pneumatic Bone'''
-Excavated to contain air spaces, such as the skull in the instance of paranasal sinuses, and the post-cranial skeleton of birds.
 ==Composition of Bone==
-[[Image:Bone histo.jpg|right|thumb|250px|<small><center>Histological structure of bone (Courtesy of RVC Histology images)</center></small>]]
+Bone is comprised of:
-[[Image:Bone micro structure.jpg|right|thumb|250px|<small><center>Microscopic bone (Courtesy of RVC Histology images)</center></small>]]
+*Matrix:
-Bone is a hard, highly specialised connective tissue . It consists of interconnected cells embedded in a calcified, collagenous matrix. It is a living, dynamic, responsive tissue, growing and remodelling throughout life.
+**Organic component: "Collagen I", which resists tension
+**Bone-specific proteins: Osteonectin, Osteopontin, Osteocalcin
-Bone is composed of:
+**Inorganic component: Calcium, Phosphorus, Bicarbonate, Citrate, Potassium, Magnesium, Sodium, which provide rigidity
-===Matrix===
+*Cells:
+**'''Osteoblasts''': single layer of cuboidal cells which synthesize bone extracellular matrix (ECM)
+**'''Osteocytes''': osteoblasts embedded in their own matrix; reside within '''lacunae''' and are interconnected via channels forming '''canaliculi'''
+***'''Canaliculi''' create connections to form a huge neural-like junctional organization
+**'''Osteoclasts''': giant (multinucleate monocytes) cells which act to resorb bone ECM
-'''Osteoid'''- An organic, uncalcified, homogeneous substance that stains light pink with H&E . Osteoid consists of type I collagen (90%), which resists tension, and bone-specific proteins (10%), including; Osteonectin, Osteopontin and Osteocalcin.
+All mammalian bone is organized as lamellated sheets:
+*'''Cortical (compact) bone'''
+**Sheath covers external surface of long bone, thicker in shaft and thins over epiphyses
+**Comprised of thin lamallae in a series of concentric tubes arranged around small central canals (collectively known as an '''osteone''')
-'''Mineral'''- An inorganic component that provides rigidity and consists of a crystalline lattice of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. It also contains Mg, Mn, Zn, Cu, Na, F. It accounts for 65% of bone.
+*'''Cancellous (spongy, or trabecular) bone'''
+**Forms the hematopoeitic center of epiphyses
+**Stacks of parallel or concentrically stacked sheets arranged as rods, plates, and arches
-===Cells===
+*'''Medullary Cavity and Cancellous Interstitium''': bone marrow storage and production
+**[[Bone Marrow - Anatomy & Physiology#Red marrow|Red Marrow]]: richly vascularized, gelatinous tissue with hematopoeitic properties found abundantly in young animals
-'''Osteoblasts'''
+**[[Bone Marrow - Anatomy & Physiology#Yellow marrow|Yellow Marrow]]: fat infiltration converts red marrow to yellow, causing hematopoeitic properties to dwindle
-A single layer of mesenchymal cells which synthesize bone extracellular matrix (osteoid). When active, they appear plump and cuboidal, with a basophilic cytoplasm. The cell membranes are rich in alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The cells are possibly involved in pumping calcium across membranes. They are promoted by growth factors and have receptors for [[Calcium#Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)|PTH]]. They contract in response, which provides space for osteoclasts to attach. When they are inactive, there is less cytoplasm, so they become flattened.
-'''Osteocytes'''
-Osteocytes are embedded in their own matrix; reside within '''lacunae''' and are interconnected via channels forming '''canaliculi'''. Canaliculi create connections to form a huge neural-like junctional organization. They contact osteoblasts and each other with cytoplasmic processes and reach through canaliculi in the mineralised bone matrix. Osteocytes regulate the composition of bone fluid.
-'''Osteoclasts'''
-Osteoclasts are giant (multinucleate [[Monocytes|monocytes]]) cells. Histologically, they are large, often multinucleated cells. They have an acidophilic cytoplasm. They sit in the bone surface depression known as, '''howship's lacuna'''. Osteoclasts respond to [[Calcium#Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D3)|vitamin D]] by increasing their numbers and activity (parathyroid independent). Osteoclasts act to resorb the bone extracellular matrix (ECM). They firstly dissolve mineral followed by collagen, using the brush border. They do <u>not</u> have receptors for PTH, but do have receptors for [[Calcium#Calcitonin|calcitonin]].
-Osteoblasts, osteocytes, chondroblasts and chondrocytes are derived from the stromal fibroblastic system ('''osteoprogenitor cells'''). Osteoclasts are derived from the haematopoietic system.
-==Organisation of Bone==
-The normal progression of bone is from woven bone to lamellar bone, even in pathology, except for [[Craniomandibular Osteopathy|canine craniomandibular osteopathy]] and [[Hypervitaminosis D|hypervitaminosis D]], where lamellar bone is replaced by woven bone.
-===Woven bone===
-Woven bone consists of coarse collagen fibres. It is later removed by osteoclasts and replaced by lamellar bone. In adults, it is a sign of a pathological condition (e.g. fracture, inflammation, neoplasia).
-===Lamellar bone===
-Lamellar bone consists of orderly layers, which are much stronger than woven bone. There are fine collagen fibres in concentric or parallel laminae. There are two main types of lamellar bone:
-. '''Compact bone (cortical)'''
-A sheath covers the external surface of long bone. It is thicker in the shaft and thins over the epiphyses. It is composed of thin lamallae in a series of concentric tubes arranged around small central canals (collectively known as an '''osteone'''). It forms 80% of the total bone mass and consists of cells and interstitial substance - 30% ossein (type of collagen) and 70% minerals, especially calcium phosphate.
-. '''Cancellous bone (spongy or trabecular)'''
-Stacks of parallel or concentrically stacked sheets arranged as rods, plates, and arches. In vertebrae, it forms flat bones and forms the hematopoeitic center of epiphyses of long bones. It contains no Haversian systems.
-===Laminar bone===
-Formed on the periosteal surface of diaphysis. It accommodates rapid growth of large dogs and farm animals. Plates of woven bone from within the periosteum. As it forms, it fuses with the bone surface.
-==Periosteum and blood supply==
-===Periosteum===
-The periosteum is the specialised sheath of connective tissue covering bone, except at the articular surfaces. It is loosely attached, except at tendon insertions and bony prominences. Histologically, there is an outer layer which is fibrous for support, and an inner layer that is osteogenic. It consists of a rich supply of nerves and lymph vessels, including nutrient, metaphyseal and periosteal arteries. The normal flow of blood from the medulla to the periosteum is due to higher pressures in the medulla. Young animals have a greater blood supply.
-The '''endosteum''' lines the marrow cavity. The '''medullary cavity and cancellous interstitium''' is for bone marrow storage and production. [[Bone Marrow - Anatomy & Physiology#Red marrow|'''Red marrow''']] is a richly vascularized, gelatinous tissue with hematopoeitic properties found abundantly in young animals and [[Bone Marrow - Anatomy & Physiology#Yellow marrow|'''yellow marrow''']] has been converted from red marrow by fat infiltration, causing hematopoeitic properties to dwindle.
 ==Biomechanics of Bone==
-Bone growth and maintenance of normal structure are directly related to mechanical forces. Mechanical forces generate bioelectrical potentials (piezoelectricity), these potentials strengthen bone. Inactivity reduces the potentials, causing bone loss.
+==Structure and Function of Cartilage==
+*Function: resist compression, provide resilience and support at sites where flexibility is desired
-===Wolff's Law===
+*Structure:
+**'''Chondrocytes''': reside within '''lacunae''' within ECM synthesizing '''matrix'''
-Bone architecture adapts in response to the loads applied upon it according to mathematical laws;
+**Type II Collagen (except fibrocartilage), proteoglycans with associated glycosaminoglycans and hyaluronic acid
+**75% Water
-'''Load''': the external force placed on a structure, F.
+**Avascular: nutrients/waste move via diffusion
+**Perichondrium is composed of two layers:
-'''Strain''': the proportional change in the structure's dimensions.
+***Fibrous: outer, dense irregular connective tissue
+***Chondrogenic: inner, flattened cells that differentiate to chondrocytes
-'''Stress''': the internal forces resisting the change in dimension caused by the load.
+*Types of Cartilage
+**'''Hyaline Cartilage'''
-Cells use strain as a stimulus to adjust mass and architecture according to load. Resorption and osteogenesis happen concurrently to maintain bone integrity. This is mediated by two hormones:
+***Most abundant in the body: glassy, translucent sheen
+***Found in nose, trachea, bronchi, ventral ends of ribs and sternal attachmont
-. [[Calcium#Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)|'''Parathyroid hormone (PTH)''']]
+***Surrounded by perichondrium
+***At sites of articulation, providing resilient frictionless surface that resists compression
-Produced by <u>chief cells in the parathyroid glands</u> in response to <u>decreased</u> serum calcium. In response, osteoclasts increase in number and resorb mineralised matrix to increase Ca in blood.
+***Found at epiphyseal growth plates
+**'''Elastic Cartilage'''
-. [[Calcium#Calcitonin|'''Calcitonin''']]
+***Yellow appearance
+***found in auricular cartilage, larynx, eustacian tube, and epiglottis
-Produced by <u>C-cells in the thyroid glands</u> in response to <u>increased</u> serum calcium. Inhibits osteoclasts.
+***Surrounded by perichondrium
+***Resiliance with added flexibility
-In neonates, bone growth predominates and modelling is important. In adults, the formation of bone is balanced by resorption - remodelling. It continues throughout life under the influence of hormones and mechanical pressure. Bone resorption may exceed formation in pathological states (hormonal, trauma, nutritional) or in old age and disuse.
+**'''Fibrocartilage'''
+***More collagen ('''Type I''') and less proteglycans than hyaline
-==Links==
+***Resists high tensional strain
-Click here for information on [[Bone & Cartilage Development - Anatomy & Physiology|Bone and Cartilage Development]].
+***Often in transition with hyaline
+***Found in intervertebral discs, tendon/ligament attachment to bone, joint menisci, and articular surface of some joints (such as the temperomandibular)
-Click here for information on [[Bones - Pathology|bone and cartilage pathology]].
+***NO perichondrium
-{{OpenPages}}
-[[Category:Bone and Cartilage - Anatomy & Physiology]]
-[[Category:A&P Done]]