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| | + | Caused by: '''''Mycoplasma capricolum'' subsp. ''capricolum |
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| − | Caused by [[Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum]] and occasionally ''M. mycoides'' subsp. ''capri'' or [[Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides|''M. mycoides'' subsp. ''mycoides'']]
| + | Also known as: '''''CCPP''''' |
| − | *Occurs in Africa and Turkey
| + | {{Taxobox |
| − | *Pneumonia, fibrinous pleurisy, pleural exudate, consolidated and emphysematous lungs
| + | |name = ''Mycoplasma capricolum'' |
| − | *Aerosol transmission; highly contagious
| + | |phylum = Firmicutes |
| | + | |class = Mollicutes |
| | + | |order = Mycoplasmatales |
| | + | |family = Mycoplasmataceae |
| | + | |genus = [[:Category:Mycoplasmas|Mycoplasma]] |
| | + | |species = ''M.capricolum'' |
| | + | |subspecies = ''capricolum'' |
| | + | }} |
| | + | == Introduction == |
| | + | Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia ('''CCPP''') is a cause of major economic losses to goat producers in Africa and Asia. |
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| | + | This condition is caused by members of the [[Mycoplasmas species - Overview|Mycoplasma genus]], usually ''Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum'' but occasionally also ''M. mycoides'' subsp. ''capri'' or [[Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides|''M. mycoides'' subsp. ''mycoides'']]. Both are members of the ''Mycoplasma mycoides'' cluster. |
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| | + | CCPP is characterized primarily by its '''contagious nature'''. The disease causes '''interstitial fibrinous pleuropneumonia''', interlobular oedema and hepatization of the lung causing high mortality rates of up to 80% and morbidity rates of up to 100%. |
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| | + | The most important distinguishing features of CCPP, with respect to the other goat respiratory mycoplasmoses, were defined by Hutcheon and are quoted as follows: |
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| − | Health and Production Compendium
| + | 1) The disease is '''readily contagious to all susceptible goats'''; |
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| | + | 2) '''Sheep and cattle are not affected''' by disease; |
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| − | Selected sections for: contagious caprine pleuropneumonia
| + | 3) Local oedematous reactions do '''not''' occur in goats when infective innoculum is given '''subcutaneously''' (Hutcheon, 1889). |
| − | Identity Pathogen/s Overview Distribution Distribution Table Hosts/Species Affected Host Animals Systems Affected List of Symptoms/Signs Epidemiology Zoonoses and Food Safety Pathology Diagnosis Disease Course Disease Treatment Table Disease Treatment Prevention and Control References Images
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| − | Datasheet Type(s): Animal Disease
| + | ==Distribution== |
| − | Identity
| + | CCPP has been detected in at least 30 countries across '''Africa, the Middle East and Western Asia'''. |
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| − | Preferred Scientific Name
| + | In natural infections, transmission of the disease is by aerosol. |
| − | contagious caprine pleuropneumonia
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| − | International Common Names
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| − | English acronym
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| − | CCPP
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| − | English
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| − | contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, mycoplasma - exotic
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| − | Pathogen/s
| + | The '''environment''' also plays an important role in the appearance, evolution and severity of CCPP. Due to the high sensitivity of mycoplasmas to the external environment, '''close contact is essential''' between infected and naive animals for transmission to take place, and '''overcrowding and confinement''' thus favours their circulation. Stress factors such as malnutrition and long transport can also predispose animals to disease. In Africa where extensive and traditional husbandry is practised, pathogens spread when animals meet at watering points and grazing areas. |
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| − | Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae
| + | ==Signalment== |
| | + | CCPP affects only goats, of any breed, sex or age worldwide. Younger animals tend to suffer more severe clinical signs than adults. |
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| | + | This specificity for both host and tissue is a striking feature of CCPP. |
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| | + | == Clinical Signs == |
| | + | The animal may appear generally '''depressed, dull, weak and lethargic'''. The animal will then be pyrexic and have signs of '''weight loss''' of reduced weight gain. |
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| | + | If the animal is in milk then milk yield will be severely reduced. Sometimes the disease may manifest as '''sudden death''' only. |
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| − | Overview
| + | Respiratory signs include '''bilateral nasal discharge, dyspnoea, tachypnoea and coughing'''. Some goats may appear to be in severe respiratory distress. |
| − | The causative agent of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae(Mccp), which was previously known by the strain name of its type species, F38. It is a member of the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster which includes M. mycoides subsp. mycoides SC (MmmSC), M. mycoides subsp. mycoides LC (MmmLC), M. mycoides subsp. capri (Mmc), M. capricolum subsp. capricolum (Mcca) and Mycoplasma species bovine group 7 (Bg7), an uncharacterized bovine isolate, which causes other diseases of ruminants. CCPP is a significant disease of goats in Africa, the Middle East and Western Asia, and is characterized primarily by its contagious nature. The disease causes interstitial, fibrinous pleuropneumonia, interlobular oedema and hepatization of the lung causing high mortality rates of up to 80%.
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| − | Definite diagnosis is made by culture of the causative agent from lung samples or pleuritic fluid taken at postmortem. Liquid and solid mycoplasma media are inoculated and filtered subcultures from liquid medium may be required if there is evidence of bacterial contamination. Isolates may be identified by biochemical, immunological and molecular tests. Serological tests for the detection of specific antibodies have relied on the complement fixation test which is the test prescribed by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) for international trade. A latex agglutination test is also available, and is used routinely in some parts of Africa.
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| − | History
| + | == Pathology == |
| | + | The gross pathological lesions are localized exclusively to '''lung and pleura''' and are often unilateral. Affected lungs can be totally hepatized, and have a '''port wine colour'''<ref>Thiaucourt, F., Bölske, G (1996) '''Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and other pulmonary mycoplasmoses of sheep and goats'''. ''Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des épizooties'', 15(4):1397-1414; 69</ref>. A lung section shows a fine granular texture with various colours, but usually without any thickening of the interlobular septa. |
| | + | <br> |
| | + | Abundant '''pleural exudate and pleuritis''' are common. The pleural exudates may have solidified forming a '''gelatinous covering.''' |
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| − | CCPP is an infectious disease which affects only goats, and was first described in the late 19th century (Hutcheon, 1889; McMartin et al., 1980). Before the isolation and identification of Mycoplasma strain F38 by MacOwan (1976), and the subsequent demonstration of its causal relationship with CCPP (MacOwan and Minette, 1976), M. mycoides subsp. capri was considered to be the aetiological agent of CCPP (Edward, 1953; Jonas and Barber, 1969). So far M. capricolumsubsp. capripneumoniae is the only mycoplasma that fulfils Koch’s postulates for CCPP and is believed to be the sole cause of CCPP (MacOwan, 1984). Mycoplasma strain F38 has recently been reclassified and now all F38-like mycoplasmas are known as Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Leach et al., 1993).
| + | In acute cases, the pleural cavity contains an excess of '''straw-coloured fluid''' with fibrin flocculations <ref>Wesonga, H. O., Lindberg, R., Litamoi, J. K., Bölske, G (1998) '''Late lesions of experimental contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by ''Mycoplasma capricolum'' ssp. ''capripneumoniae''.''' ''Journal of Veterinary Medicine.'' Series B, 45(2):105-114; 22</ref>. In chronic cases there is a '''black discolouration''' of the lung tissue and sequestration of necrotic lung areas. |
| − | This disease is on the list of diseases notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). The distribution section contains data from OIE's Handistatus database on disease occurrence. Please see the AHPC library for further information on this disease from OIE, including the International Animal Health Code and the Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines. Also see the website: www.oie.int.
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| | + | '''Adhesions''' between the lung and the pleura are very common and often very thick <ref>MacOwan, K. J., Minette, J. E (1977) '''The role of Mycoplasma strain F38 in contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Kenya.''' ''Veterinary Record'', 101:380-381</ref> |
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| | + | Histological examination of the lung tissues may show acute '''serofibrinous to chronic fibrino-necrotic pleuropneumonia''' with neutrophilic inflammation in the alveoli, bronchioles, interstitial septae and subpleural connective tissue. Intralobular oedema is prominent and local lymphoid hyperplasia common. |
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| | + | == Diagnosis == |
| | + | '''High mortality and typical early thoracic lesions''' in goats are highly indicative of ''M. capricolum'' subsp. ''capripneumoniae'' infection, but are not diagnostic. |
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| | + | ''M.capricolum'' can be identified by '''growth inhibition disc tests (GI)'''. This is the simplest and most specific test, but the '''least sensitive''' of the tests available. It depends on the direct inhibition of mycoplasma growth on solid media by specific hyperimmune serum, and detects primary surface antigens.<ref>Dighero, M. W., Bradstreet, P. C. M., Andrews, B. E (1970) '''Dried paper discs for serological identification of human mycoplasmas'''. J Applied Bacteriology, 33:750-757</ref> |
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| − | Distribution
| + | An '''in the field''' diagnostic procedure is the [[Agglutination|'''latex agglutination test (LAT)''']] which detects antibodies.<ref> Rurangirwa, F. R., McGuire, T. C., Kibor, A., Chema, S (1987) '''A latex agglutination test for field diagnosis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia'''. Veterinary Record, 121(9):191-193; 11</ref> The sensitised latex beads are stable at 4°C, room temperature and 37°C for over one year. Thus the '''long shelf-life''' of the beads at different temperatures makes it possible to prepare large amounts which can be stored until used. The latex agglutination test is an '''excellent procedure for the diagnosis of CCPP and can be run in two minutes''' on samples of whole blood or serum, requires no sophisticated equipment or storage facilities and is adaptable to any laboratory or field conditions. |
| − | Although a precise description of the distribution of CCPP is not available, the clinical disease has been reported in 30 countries mainly in Africa and Asia (Thiaucourt and Bölske, 1996). The only African countries where M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae has been isolated are Chad (Lefèvre et al., 1987a), Eritrea, Ethiopia (Thiaucourt et al., 1992), Kenya (MacOwan and Minette, 1976), Niger, Sudan (Harbi and El-Tahir, 1981), Tanzania (Kusiluka et al., 2000), Tunisia (Perreau et al., 1984), and Uganda (Bölske et al., 1995). In Asia and the Mediterranean, isolations have been reported in Oman (Jones and Wood, 1988), Turkey (Jones and Wood, 1988), the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen (Rurangirwa et al., 1987b). In Mali, goats have been suspected of infection based on serological evidence (Rurangirwa et al., 1990).
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| | + | Definite diagnosis is made by the '''isolation''' of ''M. capricolum ''subsp. ''capripneumoniae'' from clinical samples, usually '''lung tissue''' and may be a long and difficult process. The success of isolation depends primarily on the attention that is given to sample collection. |
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| − | Distribution Table
| + | The '''direct and indirect [[Immunofluorescence|fluorescent antibody tests]]''' are among the most '''effective, simple and rapid serological methods''' of identification for most Mycoplasma species.<ref> Rosendal, S., Black, F. T (1972) '''Direct and indirect immunofluorescence of unfixed and fixed mycoplasma colonies'''. Acta Pathologica et Microbiologica Scandinavica, 80:615-622.</ref> Several forms have been described, the most commonly used one is the indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test which is applied to unfixed colonies on agar. |
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| − | Country Distribution Last Reported Origin First Reported Invasive References Notes
| + | The [[Complement Fixation|complement fixation test (CFT)]] and the indirect haemagglutination test (IHA) are serological methods of diagnosis, as is the [[ELISA testing|ELISA]]. These have varying degrees of efficacy. |
| − | ASIA
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| − | Afghanistan
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | Armenia
| + | Diagnostic systems based on '''PCR''' have been developed for the rapid detection, identification and differentiation of members of the ''M. mycoides'' cluster and the specific identification of ''M. capricolum'' subsp. ''capripneumoniae''<ref>Bashiruddin, J. B., Taylor, T. K., Gould, A. R (1994) '''A PCR-based test for the specific identification of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC'''. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 6(4):428-434; 14</ref> <ref>Hotzel, H., Sachse, K., Pfützner, H (1996) '''A PCR scheme for differentiation of organisms belonging to the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster'''. Veterinary Microbiology, 49(1/2):31-43; 21</ref> |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Azerbaijan
| + | The diagnosis of outbreaks of CCPP is often complicated by other infectious agents causing similar syndromes including other mycoplasmas and ''[[Pasteurella haemolytica]]''. |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Bahrain
| + | == Treatment and Control == |
| − | Present OIE, 2009
| + | The macrolides ('''erythromycin, spiramysin, and tylosin'''), '''tetracyclines and quinolones''' are active against ''M. capricolum'' subsp.'' capripneumoniae''. |
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| − | Bangladesh
| + | Control measures include '''prevention of mixing and good hygiene'''. |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Bhutan
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | Brunei Darussalam
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Cambodia
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | China
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | -Hong Kong
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | Georgia (Republic of)
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | India
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| − | Restricted distribution OIE, 2009
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| − | Indonesia
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Iran
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| − | Present OIE, 2009
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| − | Iraq
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | Israel
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Japan
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Jordan
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Kazakhstan
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Korea, DPR
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Korea, Republic of
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Kuwait
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| − | Present OIE, 2009
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| − | Kyrgyzstan
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Laos
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | Lebanon
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| − | Absent, reported but not confirmed OIE, 2009
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| − | Malaysia
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | -Peninsular Malaysia
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | -Sabah
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | -Sarawak
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Mongolia
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Myanmar
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Nepal
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Oman
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| − | Present NULL OIE, 2009; Jones & Wood, 1988
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| − | Pakistan
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| − | Present OIE, 2009
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| − | Philippines
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Qatar
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Saudi Arabia
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Singapore
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Sri Lanka
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Syria
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Taiwan
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Tajikistan
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Thailand
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Turkey
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | Turkmenistan
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | United Arab Emirates
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| − | No information available NULL OIE, 2009; Rurangirwa et al., 1987b
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| − | Uzbekistan
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Vietnam
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Yemen
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| − | No information available NULL OIE, 2009; Rurangirwa et al., 1987b
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| − | AFRICA
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| − | Algeria
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Angola
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Benin
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | Botswana
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Burkina Faso
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Burundi
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Cameroon
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| − | Reported present or known to be present OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Cape Verde
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Central African Republic
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Chad
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| − | No information available NULL OIE, 2009; Lefevre et al., 1987a
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| − | | |
| − | Congo
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Congo Democratic Republic
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| − | No information available OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Côte d'Ivoire
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| − | Reported present or known to be present OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Djibouti
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | Egypt
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Eritrea
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| − | Present NULL OIE, 2009; Thiaucourt et al., 1992
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| − | Ethiopia
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| − | Present NULL OIE, 2009; Thiaucourt et al., 1992
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| − | | |
| − | Gabon
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Gambia
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Ghana
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Guinea
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Guinea-Bissau
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Kenya
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| − | Restricted distribution NULL OIE, 2009; MacOwan & Minette, 1976
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| − | | |
| − | Lesotho
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Libya
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| − | Reported present or known to be present OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | Madagascar
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Malawi
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Mali
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| − | No information available NULL OIE, 2009; Rurangirwa et al., 1990
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| − | | |
| − | Mauritius
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Morocco
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Mozambique
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Namibia
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Niger
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| − | Present Bloch & Diallo, 1991
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| − | | |
| − | Nigeria
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Réunion
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Rwanda
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Sao Tome and Principe
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Senegal
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Seychelles
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| − | No information available OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Somalia
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| − | No information available OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | South Africa
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Sudan
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| − | Disease not reported 200602 OIE, 2009; Harbi & El-Tahir, 1981
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| − | | |
| − | Swaziland
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Tanzania
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| − | Present NULL OIE, 2009; Kusiluka et al., 2000
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| − | | |
| − | Togo
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Tunisia
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| − | Disease not reported 2000 OIE, 2009; Perreau et al., 1984
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| − | | |
| − | Uganda
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| − | Disease not reported NULL OIE, 2009; Bölske et al., 1995
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| − | | |
| − | Zambia
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| − | No information available OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Zimbabwe
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| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | NORTH AMERICA
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| − | Bermuda
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Canada
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Greenland
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Mexico
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | USA
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | -Georgia
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | CENTRAL AMERICA
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| − | Barbados
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Belize
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | British Virgin Islands
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| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Cayman Islands
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Costa Rica
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Cuba
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Curaçao
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Dominica
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| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
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| − | | |
| − | Dominican Republic
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | El Salvador
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| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
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| − | | |
| − | Guadeloupe
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Guatemala
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Haiti
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Honduras
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Jamaica
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Martinique
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Nicaragua
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Panama
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Saint Kitts and Nevis
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
| |
| − | CAB Abstracts data mining OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Trinidad and Tobago
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | SOUTH AMERICA
| |
| − | Argentina
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Bolivia
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Brazil
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Chile
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Colombia
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Ecuador
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Falkland Islands
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | French Guiana
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Guyana
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Paraguay
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Peru
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Uruguay
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Venezuela
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | EUROPE
| |
| − | Albania
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Andorra
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Austria
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Belarus
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Belgium
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Bosnia-Hercegovina
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Bulgaria
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Croatia
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Cyprus
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Czech Republic
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Denmark
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Estonia
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Finland
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | France
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Germany
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Greece
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Hungary
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Iceland
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Ireland
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Isle of Man (UK)
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Italy
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Jersey
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Latvia
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Liechtenstein
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Lithuania
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Luxembourg
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Macedonia
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Malta
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Moldova
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Montenegro
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Netherlands
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Norway
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Poland
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Portugal
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Romania
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Russian Federation
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Serbia
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Slovakia
| |
| − | No information available OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Slovenia
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Spain
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Sweden
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Switzerland
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Ukraine
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | United Kingdom
| |
| − |
| |
| − | -Northern Ireland
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | United Kingdom
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Yugoslavia (former)
| |
| − | No information available OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | OCEANIA
| |
| − | Australia
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | French Polynesia
| |
| − | Disease not reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | New Caledonia
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | New Zealand
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE, 2009
| |
| − | | |
| − | Samoa
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Vanuatu
| |
| − | Disease never reported OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | Wallis and Futuna Islands
| |
| − | No information available OIE Handistatus, 2005
| |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Hosts/Species Affected
| |
| − | CCPP has been reported to affect only goats (Thiaucourt and Bölske, 1996) and it does not cause disease in sheep, neither spontaneously nor experimentally (McMartin et al., 1980). However, there are some reports describing the isolation of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae from healthy sheep in Kenya that have been in contact with goat herds affected by CCPP (Litamoi et al., 1990), and from sick sheep mixed with goats in Uganda suffering from the disease (Bölske et al., 1995). The isolation of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae from cattle with mastitis has also been reported (Kumar and Garg, 1991), and these reports confound the perceived host specificity of M. capricolum subsp.capripneumoniae.
| |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Host Animals
| |
| − | | |
| − | Animal name Context
| |
| − | Capra hircus (goats)
| |
| − | Domesticated host, Wild host
| |
| − | | |
| − | Systems Affected
| |
| − | | |
| − | Respiratory - Small Ruminants
| |
| − | | |
| − | List of Symptoms/Signs
| |
| − | | |
| − | Sign Life Stages Type
| |
| − | Digestive Signs
| |
| − | Anorexia, loss or decreased appetite, not nursing, off feed S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | General Signs
| |
| − | Weight loss S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Underweight, poor condition, thin, emaciated, unthriftiness, ill thrift S1 ( All Stages ) Sign [C]
| |
| − | Sudden death, found dead Sign [C]
| |
| − | Stiffness or extended neck Sign [C]
| |
| − | Inability to stand, downer, prostration Sign [C]
| |
| − | Fever, pyrexia, hyperthermia S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Exercise intolerance, tires easily S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Lack of growth or weight gain, retarded, stunted growth S1 ( All Stages ) Sign [C]
| |
| − | Reluctant to move, refusal to move Sign [C]
| |
| − | Nervous Signs
| |
| − | Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Pain/Discomfort Signs
| |
| − | Pain, chest, thorax, ribs, sternum S1 ( All Stages ) Sign
| |
| − | Reproductive Signs
| |
| − | Mastitis, abnormal milk Sign [C]
| |
| − | Agalactia, decreased, absent milk production S1 ( All Stages ) Sign [C]
| |
| − | Respiratory Signs
| |
| − | Purulent nasal discharge S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Mucoid nasal discharge, serous, watery S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Dyspnea, difficult, open mouth breathing, grunt, gasping S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Increased respiratory rate, polypnea, tachypnea, hyperpnea S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Coughing, coughs S1 ( All Stages ) Diagnosis [C]
| |
| − | Skin/Integumentary Signs
| |
| − | Rough hair coat, dull, standing on end S1 ( All Stages ) Sign [C]
| |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Epidemiology
| |
| − | The most important distinguishing features of CCPP, with respect to the other goat respiratory mycoplasmoses, were defined by Hutcheon and are quoted as follows: (1) the disease is readily contagious to susceptible goats; (2) sheep and cattle are not affected by disease [but see below]; (3) local oedematous reactions do not occur in goats when infective inoculum is given subcutaneously (Hutcheon, 1889). In natural infections, the organisms are acquired by susceptible goats by inhalation of contaminated droplets from infected goats (MacOwan, 1984). The environment as a whole plays an important role in the appearance, evolution and severity of CCPP. Due to the high sensitivity of mycoplasmas to the external environment, close contact is essential between infected and naive animals for transmission to take place, and, overcrowding and confinement favours close contact and circulation of mycoplasmas. Stress factors due to malnutrition and transport over long distances can predispose the animal to disease. In Africa where extensive and traditional husbandry is practised, pathogens spread when animals meet at watering points and grazing areas. Breed and sex appear not to affect the epidemiology of CCPP, but age is an important factor. Though all age groups are susceptible, mortality is higher among young animals than adults. Infective M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae may persist in chronic, latent carriers, such as goats or sheep which have recovered from infection without becoming bacteriologically sterile, and are considered to be responsible for the perpetuation of the disease in a herd (Thiaucourt and Bölske, 1996; Wesonga et al., 1998). This aspect of the epidemiology was described as early as 1881 by Hutcheon (McMartin et al., 1980) in the case of CCPP in South Africa (Lefèvre et al., 1987b). Viruses are important factors that predispose lung tissue to invasion by mycoplasmas. In Africa the virus, peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and capripox viruses are important (Lefévre et al., 1987b).
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| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Zoonoses and Food Safety
| |
| − | CCPP is not a zoonotic disease.
| |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Pathology
| |
| − | The gross pathological lesions are localized exclusively to lung and pleura and are often unilateral. Affected lungs can be totally hepatized, and have a port wine colour (Thiaucourt and Bölske, 1996). A lung section shows a fine granular texture with various colours, but usually without any thickening of the interlobular septa. There is often an abundant pleural exudate and conspicuous pleuritis. The pleural exudates can solidify and form a gelatinous covering sometimes over the whole lung. In acute cases, the pleural cavity contains an excess of straw-coloured fluid with fibrin flocculations (Kaliner and MacOwan, 1976; Wesonga et al., 1993). In chronic cases there is a black discolouration of the lung tissue and sequestration of the necrotic lung areas. Adhesions between the lung and the pleura are very common and often very thick (MacOwan and Minette, 1977).
| |
| − | Histological examination of the lung tissues may show acute serofibrinous to chronic fibrino-necrotic pleuropneumonia with infiltrates of serofibrinous fluid and inflammatory cells, mainly neutrophils, in the alveoli, bronchioles, interstitial septae and subpleural connective tissue. Intralobular oedema is more prominent but interlobular oedema has also been reported. Peribronchial and perbronchiolar lymphoid hyperplasia with mononuclear cell infiltration is also present (MacOwan and Minette, 1976; Kibor, 1990; Wesonga et al., 1998; Msami et al., 1998).
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| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Diagnosis
| |
| − | In the field, diagnosis of mycoplasma pneumonia cannot be established on clinical signs or on postmortem examinations alone. In outbreaks of classical acute CCPP, the high mortality and typical early thoracic lesions in goats are highly indicative of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae infection, but all cases of caprine mycoplasmosis need additional laboratory tests to establish a presumptive diagnosis. It may be difficult to distinguish CCPP from an infection by M. mycoides subsp. mycoides LC or M. mycoides subsp. mycoides SC, which have a pulmonary location. In the case of M. mycoides subsp. mycoides LC infection, thickening of the interlobular septa may be evident. These lesions are similar to those observed in the case of CBPP. Sometimes the thickening is absent or inconspicuous and laboratory confirmation is needed. Recently, sequestra in the lungs of goats infected with M. mycoides subsp. mycoides SC have been described (Kusiluka et al., 2000).
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| − | | |
| − | Growth, Isolation and Transport Media
| |
| − | | |
| − | Definite diagnosis is made by the isolation of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae from clinical samples, usually lung tissue and may be a long and difficult process. The success of isolation depends primarily on the attention that is given to sample collection. The main difficulties in isolating M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae is that it grows very poorly in vitro and samples are often contaminated by other mycoplasmas (Freundt, 1983a; Thiaucourt et al., 1996) which are generally faster growing and overgrow M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae. In addition to this the frequent use of antibiotic treatment has impaired the growth of these mycoplasmas from clinical material. An immunobinding assay that detects M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae in pleural fluids that overcomes some of these problems has been described (Guerin et al., 1993). Liquid medium and a solid agar medium which allows the presumptive identification of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae by the production of coloured colonies is available commercially (Bashiruddin and Windsor, 1998). An antigen detection system using latex coated antibodies has also been described (March et al., 2000).
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| − | | |
| − | Biochemical Tests
| |
| − | | |
| − | Only a limited number of biochemical tests perform a useful function as a preliminary screening system and are based on specific enzyme activities or nutritional capabilities. For instance, digitonin sensitivity distinguishes mycoplasmas from acholeplasmas, and serum digestion differentiates members of the M. mycoides cluster from all other small ruminant mycoplasmas (Freundt, 1983b). Also, phosphatase production separates M.capricolum subsp. capricolum from other members of the cluster (Bradbury, 1983). Substantial metabolic differences between M.capricolum subsp. capricolum andM. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae exist, but differences in glucose metabolism were described between strains of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Abu-Groun et al., 1994). These tests can not differentiate M. capricolum subsp.capripneumoniae from all members of M. mycoides cluster (Bölske, 1995). The interspecies variation in some biochemical reactions is often considerable, rendering their application valueless (Jones, 1989; Rurangirwa, 1996).
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| − | | |
| − | Growth Inhibition Test
| |
| − | | |
| − | The growth inhibition (GI) test is the simplest and most specific, but the least sensitive of the tests available. It depends on the direct inhibition of mycoplasma growth on solid media by specific hyperimmune serum, and detects primary surface antigens (Dighero et al., 1970). The GI test is particularly useful in identifying M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniaebecause they appear to be serologically homogeneous, and antiserum to the type strain produces wide inhibition zones free of ‘breakthrough’ colonies against field isolates from diverse sources. M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae cross-reacts with Leach’s Bg7, M. equigenitalium and M. primatum in the GI test, but since these cross-reactive species do not occur in goats, they present no difficulties when identifying field isolates. However, a small proportion of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae isolates also cross-react in the GI test with antiserum to M.capricolum subsp. capricolum which may confuse the identification of field isolates. A monoclonal antibody has been produced which specifically inhibits the growth of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae but not of other members of the M. mycoidescluster (Rurangirwa et al., 1987c). It was later demonstrated that this monoclonal antibody was not specific. Cross-reactions with some strains of Bg7 were observed with the GI test and with a strain of M.capricolum subsp. capricolumin the immunofluorescence test (Belton et al., 1994).
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| − | | |
| − | Fluorescent Antibody Test
| |
| − | | |
| − | The direct and indirect fluorescent antibody tests are among the most effective, simple and rapid serological methods of identification for most mycoplasma (Rosendal and Black, 1972). Several forms have been described, the most commonly used one is the indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test which is applied to unfixed colonies on agar.
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| − | | |
| − | Serological Tests
| |
| − | | |
| − | The complement fixation test (CFT) is used for the detection of CCPP infection (MacOwan, 1976; MacOwan and Minette, 1977), and it was found to be more specific, though less sensitive, than the indirect haemagglutination test (Muthomi and Rurangirwa, 1983). The latex agglutination test uses latex beads sensitized with the polysaccharide produced by M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae in culture supernatant in a slide agglutination test (Rurangirwa et al., 1987a). The use of the more defined antigen such as the polysaccharide provides greater sensitivity without cross-reactivity with sera against the other three principal caprine mycoplasmas.
| |
| − | The indirect haemagglutination test (IHA) (Cho et al., 1976) has been used for the detection of antibodies to the agent causing CCPP (Muthomi and Rurangirwa, 1983). The specificity of IHA test for the M. mycoides cluster has been evaluated and results were found to show cross-reactivity between these organisms (Jones and Wood, 1988).
| |
| − | An indirect immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed to screen goat sera at a single dilution of antibody to M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Wamwayi et al., 1989). Some problems due to cross-reactions from other members of the M. mycoides cluster were encountered, but in spite of these, ELISA was more sensitive than CFT in detecting antibodies in serum. More recently, a competition ELISA (c-ELISA) was developed which permitted the specific detection of antibodies in sera from animals affected by CCPP (Thiaucourt et al., 1994). Analysis of field sera showed that seroconversion did not occur in all animals, whatever test was used. The percentage positive animals in affected herds varied between 30 and 60% with this test. The tests were therefore unsuitable as individual screening tests (Thiaucourt et al., 1996).
| |
| − | | |
| − | Molecular Diagnosis
| |
| − | | |
| − | Until recently, isolation was the only way to confirm the presence of CCPP. A DNA probe which differentiates M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae from other members of the M. mycoides cluster was developed (Taylor et al., 1992). Diagnostic systems based on PCR have been developed for the rapid detection, identification and differentiation of members of the M. mycoides cluster and the specific identification of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Bashiruddin et al., 1994; Hotzel et al., 1996). The sequence of the gene for 16S ribosomal RNA has also been used to develop a PCR-based test where the final identification of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae is made dependant on the pattern of the products after digestion of the PCR product with the restriction enzyme Pst1 (Bascuñana et al., 1994; Bölske et al., 1996).
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| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Disease Course
| |
| − | Acute cases can be observed in regions where CCPP is introduced for the first time into naive populations. Particularly in animals with primary infection, the illness lasts for about two days and death ensues, while in other cases it may last several days. The primary clinical signs are cough with animals tending to lie down or lag behind the flock. Affected animals continue to graze for some time but eventually become anorexic, breathing becomes laboured with painful grunting and a rise in temperature up to 41°C. Gradually, the respiratory symptoms become prominent, respiration is accelerated and painful, and is followed by violent coughing (McMartin et al., 1980; Thiaucourt and Bölske, 1996).
| |
| − | In the terminal stages, the animals are unable to move. They stand with their legs abducted, the neck is stiff and extended downward, saliva continuously drips from their mouth and their nose is obstructed by mucopurulent discharge. The tongue protrudes and the animals bleat distressingly. In fully susceptible flocks that encounter an outbreak, morbidity is usually 100% and mortality is up to 70% (McMartin et al., 1980). The organism is not reported to affect organ systems other than the respiratory tract. In endemic areas subacute and chronic cases are common and the symptoms are milder, dominated by intermittent coughing.
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| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Disease Treatment Table
| |
| − | | |
| − | Drug Dosage, administration and withdrawal times Life stages Adverse affects Drug resistance Type
| |
| − | streptomycin 30 mg/kg. Follow veterinary advice. All Stages No Drug
| |
| − | tetracycline 15 mg/kg. Follow veterinary advice. All Stages No Drug
| |
| − | tiamulin 30 mg/kg. Follow veterinary advice. All Stages No Drug
| |
| − | tylosin 11 mg/kg. Follow veterinary advice. All Stages No Drug
| |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Disease Treatment
| |
| − | The macrolides (erythromycin, spiramysin, and tylosin), tetracyclines and quinolones are active against M. capricolumsubsp. capripneumoniae. Tylosin, tetracyclin, tiamulin or streptomycin are recommended (Hassan et al., 1984; Onovarian, 1974) but their success depends on early intervention and treatment.
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| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | Prevention and Control
| |
| − | An experimental vaccine inactivated with saponin that protects goats for approximately a year has been produced in Kenya (Rurangirwa et al., 1984).
| |
| | Movement restrictions and slaughtering infected animals are recommended for countries that are newly infected. | | Movement restrictions and slaughtering infected animals are recommended for countries that are newly infected. |
| | | | |
| | + | {{Learning |
| | + | |flashcards = [[Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia Flashcards]] |
| | + | }} |
| | | | |
| − | References | + | == References == |
| − | | + | <references /> |
| − | Abu-Groun EAM, Taylor RR, Varsani H, Wadher BJ, Leach RH, Miles RJ, 1994. Biochemical diversity within the 'Mycoplasma mycoides cluster'. Microbiology (Reading), 140(8):2033-2042; 30 ref.
| + | Bashiruddin, J. B., Taylor, T. K., Gould, A. R (1994) '''A PCR-based test for the specific identification of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC.''' ''J Vet Diagnostic Investigation'', 6(4):428-434; 14. |
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| − | Bashiruddin JB, Taylor TK, Gould AR, 1994. A PCR-based test for the specific identification of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 6(4):428-434; 14 ref.
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| − | Bashiruddin JB, Windsor GD, 1998. Coloured colonies of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC and Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae on solid agar media for the presumptive diagnosis of CBPP and CCPP. In:Proceedings of the ARC-Onderstepoort OIE International congress with WHO-cosponsorship on Anthrax, Brucellosis, CBPP, Clostridial and Mycobacterial diseases. 9-15, August 1998, Kruger National Park, South Africa, 226-229.
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| − | Belton D, Leach RH, Mitchelmore DL, Rurangirwa FR, 1994. Serological specificity of a monoclonal antibody to Mycoplasma capricolum strain F38, the agent of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Veterinary Record, 134(25):643-646; 21 ref.
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| − | Bloch N, Diallo I, 1991. Serological survey on sheep and goats in four departments of Niger. Revue d'élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 44(4):397-404; 9 ref.
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| + | Bashiruddin, J. B., Windsor, G. D (1998) '''Coloured colonies of ''Mycoplasma mycoides'' subsp. ''mycoides'' SC and'' Mycoplasma capricolum'' subsp. ''capripneumoniae'' on solid agar media for the presumptive diagnosis of CBPP and CCPP.''' ''In:Proceedings of the ARC-Onderstepoort OIE International congress with WHO-cosponsorship on Anthrax, Brucellosis, CBPP, Clostridial and Mycobacterial diseases.'' 9-15, Kruger National Park, South Africa, 226-229. |
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| | + | Belton, D., Leach, R. H., Mitchelmore, D. L., Rurangirwa, F. R (1994) '''Serological specificity of a monoclonal antibody to ''Mycoplasma capricolum'' strain F38, the agent of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia.''' ''Veterinary Record'', 134(25):643-646; 21. |
| | | | |
| | + | Dighero, M. W., Bradstreet, P. C. M., Andrews, B. E (1970) '''Dried paper discs for serological identification of human mycoplasmas.''' ''J Applied Bacteriology'', 33:750-757. |
| | | | |
| | + | Hotzel, H., Sachse, K., Pfützner, H (1996) '''A PCR scheme for differentiation of organisms belonging to the ''Mycoplasma mycoides'' cluster.''' ''Vet Microbiology'', 49(1/2):31-43; 21. |
| | | | |
| | + | Hutcheon, D (1889) '''Contagious pleuro-pneumonia in goats at Cape Colony, South Africa.''' ''Veterinary Journal'', 29:399-404. |
| | | | |
| − | Wesonga HO, Litamoi JK, Kagumba M, Wakhusama E, 1993. Relationship between clinical signs and early lesions of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma strain F38. Small Ruminant Research, 10(1):45-54; 15 ref.
| + | Kaliner, G., MacOwan, K. J (1976) '''The pathology of experimental and natural contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya.''' ''Zentrablat Veterinary Medicine B'', 23:652-661. |
| | | | |
| | + | Kibor, A. C (1990) '''Methods for the laboratory diagnosis of cantagious carprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP).''' In: Alton GG, Carter GR, Kibor AC, Pesti L, eds. Veterinary Diagnostic Microbiology. A manual of laboratory procedures for selected diseases of livestock. Rome, Italy: ''Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations,'' 169-200. |
| | | | |
| | + | MacOwan, K. J (1976) '''A mycoplasma from chronic caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya'''. ''Tropical Animal Health Production'', 8:28-36. |
| | | | |
| | + | MacOwan, K. J., Minette, J. E (1976) '''A mycoplasma from acute contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya'''. ''Tropical Animal Health Production,'' 8:91-95. |
| | | | |
| | + | Msami, H. M., Kapaga, A. M., Bölske, G (1998) ''Occurance of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Tanzania.''' ''Tanzania Veterinary Journal,'' 18:285- 297. |
| | | | |
| | + | Rurangirwa, F. R., McGuire, T. C., Kibor, A., Chema, S (1987) '''A latex agglutination test for field diagnosis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia.''''' Veterinary Record, ''121(9):191-193; 11. |
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| − | Images
| + | Rurangirwa, F. R., McGuire, T. C., Magnuson, N. S., Kibor, A., Chema, S(1987) '''Composition of a polysaccharide from mycoplasma (F-38) recognised by antibodies from goats with contagious pleuropneumonia.''' ''Research in Veterinary Science'', 42(2):175-178; 16 |
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| − | Picture Title Caption Copyright
| + | Thiaucourt, F., Bölske, G., Leneguersh, B., Smith, D., Wesonga, H (1996) '''Diagnosis and control of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia.''' ''Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des épizooties'', 15(4):1415-1429; 35. |
| − | Pathology Lung of a goat affected with CCPP showing a fibrinous covering over the lobe. L. J. M. Kusiluka, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania
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| − | Pathology Lung of a goat affected with CCPP. Superficial view of the lung showing necrosis and consolidation of the lobe. The infected regions often appear grey, hence the common name of 'grey lung' for this disease. G. E. Jones, Yaba Ltd, UK
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| − | Pathology Lung of a goat affected with CCPP. Superficial view of the lung showing the scar of an adhesion between the lobe and the thoracic wall. G. E. Jones, Yaba Ltd, UK
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| − | Pathology Lung of a goat affected with CCPP. View of a dissected lobe showing hepatization of the lobules, thickening of the interlobular septa, and thickening of the pleura. G. E. Jones, Yaba Ltd, UK
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| − | Histology Histological section of a lung lesion stained with haematoxylin and eosin, showing necrosis of pulmonary tissue with inflamatory luminal exudate, septal distension, and epithelial hyperplasia. G. E. Jones, Yaba Ltd, UK
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| − | Histology Histological section of a lung lesion stained with haematoxylin and eosin showing acute fibrinous pneumonia with precipitates of fibrin mixed with inflamatory cells in the alveoli. G. E. Jones, Yaba Ltd, UK
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| − | CCPP Diagnostic Media Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae strain F38 colonies after 7 days of incubation on CCPP Diagnostic Media (Mycoplasma Experience, Reigate, UK) showing dark pigmentation and red crystalline deposits. Mycoplasma Experience, Reigate, UK
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| − | Pathology Lung is covered with fibrin and there is excessive fluid in the thoracic cavity. USDA, 2002. Foreign Animal Diseases Training Set. USDA - Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service
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| | + | Wesonga, H. O., Litamoi, J. K., Kagumba, M., Wakhusama, E (1993) '''Relationship between clinical signs and early lesions of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma strain F38'''. ''Small Ruminant Research,'' 10(1):45-54; 15 |
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| − | Date of report: 03/04/2011
| + | {{CABI source |
| | + | |datasheet = [http://www.cabi.org/ahpc/?compid=3&dsid=88092&loadmodule=datasheet&page=2144&site=160 contagious caprine pleuropneumonia] and [http://www.cabi.org/ahpc/Default.aspx?site=160&page=2144&LoadModule=datasheet&CompID=3&dsID=74545 ''Mycoplasma capricolum ''subsp. ''capripneumoniaeback''] |
| | + | |date =03 April 2011 |
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| − | © CAB International 2010
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| | + | {{OpenPages}} |
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| − | [[Category:To_Do_-_CABI]] | + | [[Category:CABI Expert Review]][[Category:CABI AHPC Pages]] |
| | + | [[Category:Respiratory Diseases - Goat]] |
| | + | [[Category:Respiratory Bacterial Infections]] |
Caused by: Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum
Also known as: CCPP
| Mycoplasma capricolum
|
| Phylum
|
Firmicutes
|
| Class
|
Mollicutes
|
| Order
|
Mycoplasmatales
|
| Family
|
Mycoplasmataceae
|
| Genus
|
Mycoplasma
|
| Species
|
M.capricolum
|
Introduction
Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a cause of major economic losses to goat producers in Africa and Asia.
This condition is caused by members of the Mycoplasma genus, usually Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum but occasionally also M. mycoides subsp. capri or M. mycoides subsp. mycoides. Both are members of the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster.
CCPP is characterized primarily by its contagious nature. The disease causes interstitial fibrinous pleuropneumonia, interlobular oedema and hepatization of the lung causing high mortality rates of up to 80% and morbidity rates of up to 100%.
The most important distinguishing features of CCPP, with respect to the other goat respiratory mycoplasmoses, were defined by Hutcheon and are quoted as follows:
1) The disease is readily contagious to all susceptible goats;
2) Sheep and cattle are not affected by disease;
3) Local oedematous reactions do not occur in goats when infective innoculum is given subcutaneously (Hutcheon, 1889).
Distribution
CCPP has been detected in at least 30 countries across Africa, the Middle East and Western Asia.
In natural infections, transmission of the disease is by aerosol.
The environment also plays an important role in the appearance, evolution and severity of CCPP. Due to the high sensitivity of mycoplasmas to the external environment, close contact is essential between infected and naive animals for transmission to take place, and overcrowding and confinement thus favours their circulation. Stress factors such as malnutrition and long transport can also predispose animals to disease. In Africa where extensive and traditional husbandry is practised, pathogens spread when animals meet at watering points and grazing areas.
Signalment
CCPP affects only goats, of any breed, sex or age worldwide. Younger animals tend to suffer more severe clinical signs than adults.
This specificity for both host and tissue is a striking feature of CCPP.
Clinical Signs
The animal may appear generally depressed, dull, weak and lethargic. The animal will then be pyrexic and have signs of weight loss of reduced weight gain.
If the animal is in milk then milk yield will be severely reduced. Sometimes the disease may manifest as sudden death only.
Respiratory signs include bilateral nasal discharge, dyspnoea, tachypnoea and coughing. Some goats may appear to be in severe respiratory distress.
Pathology
The gross pathological lesions are localized exclusively to lung and pleura and are often unilateral. Affected lungs can be totally hepatized, and have a port wine colour[1]. A lung section shows a fine granular texture with various colours, but usually without any thickening of the interlobular septa.
Abundant pleural exudate and pleuritis are common. The pleural exudates may have solidified forming a gelatinous covering.
In acute cases, the pleural cavity contains an excess of straw-coloured fluid with fibrin flocculations [2]. In chronic cases there is a black discolouration of the lung tissue and sequestration of necrotic lung areas.
Adhesions between the lung and the pleura are very common and often very thick [3]
Histological examination of the lung tissues may show acute serofibrinous to chronic fibrino-necrotic pleuropneumonia with neutrophilic inflammation in the alveoli, bronchioles, interstitial septae and subpleural connective tissue. Intralobular oedema is prominent and local lymphoid hyperplasia common.
Diagnosis
High mortality and typical early thoracic lesions in goats are highly indicative of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae infection, but are not diagnostic.
M.capricolum can be identified by growth inhibition disc tests (GI). This is the simplest and most specific test, but the least sensitive of the tests available. It depends on the direct inhibition of mycoplasma growth on solid media by specific hyperimmune serum, and detects primary surface antigens.[4]
An in the field diagnostic procedure is the latex agglutination test (LAT) which detects antibodies.[5] The sensitised latex beads are stable at 4°C, room temperature and 37°C for over one year. Thus the long shelf-life of the beads at different temperatures makes it possible to prepare large amounts which can be stored until used. The latex agglutination test is an excellent procedure for the diagnosis of CCPP and can be run in two minutes on samples of whole blood or serum, requires no sophisticated equipment or storage facilities and is adaptable to any laboratory or field conditions.
Definite diagnosis is made by the isolation of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae from clinical samples, usually lung tissue and may be a long and difficult process. The success of isolation depends primarily on the attention that is given to sample collection.
The direct and indirect fluorescent antibody tests are among the most effective, simple and rapid serological methods of identification for most Mycoplasma species.[6] Several forms have been described, the most commonly used one is the indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test which is applied to unfixed colonies on agar.
The complement fixation test (CFT) and the indirect haemagglutination test (IHA) are serological methods of diagnosis, as is the ELISA. These have varying degrees of efficacy.
Diagnostic systems based on PCR have been developed for the rapid detection, identification and differentiation of members of the M. mycoides cluster and the specific identification of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae[7] [8]
The diagnosis of outbreaks of CCPP is often complicated by other infectious agents causing similar syndromes including other mycoplasmas and Pasteurella haemolytica.
Treatment and Control
The macrolides (erythromycin, spiramysin, and tylosin), tetracyclines and quinolones are active against M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae.
Control measures include prevention of mixing and good hygiene.
Movement restrictions and slaughtering infected animals are recommended for countries that are newly infected.
References
- ↑ Thiaucourt, F., Bölske, G (1996) Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and other pulmonary mycoplasmoses of sheep and goats. Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des épizooties, 15(4):1397-1414; 69
- ↑ Wesonga, H. O., Lindberg, R., Litamoi, J. K., Bölske, G (1998) Late lesions of experimental contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma capricolum ssp. capripneumoniae. Journal of Veterinary Medicine. Series B, 45(2):105-114; 22
- ↑ MacOwan, K. J., Minette, J. E (1977) The role of Mycoplasma strain F38 in contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Kenya. Veterinary Record, 101:380-381
- ↑ Dighero, M. W., Bradstreet, P. C. M., Andrews, B. E (1970) Dried paper discs for serological identification of human mycoplasmas. J Applied Bacteriology, 33:750-757
- ↑ Rurangirwa, F. R., McGuire, T. C., Kibor, A., Chema, S (1987) A latex agglutination test for field diagnosis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Veterinary Record, 121(9):191-193; 11
- ↑ Rosendal, S., Black, F. T (1972) Direct and indirect immunofluorescence of unfixed and fixed mycoplasma colonies. Acta Pathologica et Microbiologica Scandinavica, 80:615-622.
- ↑ Bashiruddin, J. B., Taylor, T. K., Gould, A. R (1994) A PCR-based test for the specific identification of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 6(4):428-434; 14
- ↑ Hotzel, H., Sachse, K., Pfützner, H (1996) A PCR scheme for differentiation of organisms belonging to the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster. Veterinary Microbiology, 49(1/2):31-43; 21
Bashiruddin, J. B., Taylor, T. K., Gould, A. R (1994) A PCR-based test for the specific identification of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC. J Vet Diagnostic Investigation, 6(4):428-434; 14.
Bashiruddin, J. B., Windsor, G. D (1998) Coloured colonies of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC and Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae on solid agar media for the presumptive diagnosis of CBPP and CCPP. In:Proceedings of the ARC-Onderstepoort OIE International congress with WHO-cosponsorship on Anthrax, Brucellosis, CBPP, Clostridial and Mycobacterial diseases. 9-15, Kruger National Park, South Africa, 226-229.
Belton, D., Leach, R. H., Mitchelmore, D. L., Rurangirwa, F. R (1994) Serological specificity of a monoclonal antibody to Mycoplasma capricolum strain F38, the agent of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Veterinary Record, 134(25):643-646; 21.
Dighero, M. W., Bradstreet, P. C. M., Andrews, B. E (1970) Dried paper discs for serological identification of human mycoplasmas. J Applied Bacteriology, 33:750-757.
Hotzel, H., Sachse, K., Pfützner, H (1996) A PCR scheme for differentiation of organisms belonging to the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster. Vet Microbiology, 49(1/2):31-43; 21.
Hutcheon, D (1889) Contagious pleuro-pneumonia in goats at Cape Colony, South Africa. Veterinary Journal, 29:399-404.
Kaliner, G., MacOwan, K. J (1976) The pathology of experimental and natural contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya. Zentrablat Veterinary Medicine B, 23:652-661.
Kibor, A. C (1990) Methods for the laboratory diagnosis of cantagious carprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP). In: Alton GG, Carter GR, Kibor AC, Pesti L, eds. Veterinary Diagnostic Microbiology. A manual of laboratory procedures for selected diseases of livestock. Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 169-200.
MacOwan, K. J (1976) A mycoplasma from chronic caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya. Tropical Animal Health Production, 8:28-36.
MacOwan, K. J., Minette, J. E (1976) A mycoplasma from acute contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya. Tropical Animal Health Production, 8:91-95.
Msami, H. M., Kapaga, A. M., Bölske, G (1998) Occurance of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Tanzania.' Tanzania Veterinary Journal, 18:285- 297.
Rurangirwa, F. R., McGuire, T. C., Kibor, A., Chema, S (1987) A latex agglutination test for field diagnosis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Veterinary Record, 121(9):191-193; 11.
Rurangirwa, F. R., McGuire, T. C., Magnuson, N. S., Kibor, A., Chema, S(1987) Composition of a polysaccharide from mycoplasma (F-38) recognised by antibodies from goats with contagious pleuropneumonia. Research in Veterinary Science, 42(2):175-178; 16
Thiaucourt, F., Bölske, G., Leneguersh, B., Smith, D., Wesonga, H (1996) Diagnosis and control of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des épizooties, 15(4):1415-1429; 35.
Wesonga, H. O., Litamoi, J. K., Kagumba, M., Wakhusama, E (1993) Relationship between clinical signs and early lesions of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma strain F38. Small Ruminant Research, 10(1):45-54; 15
