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==Introduction==

==Introduction==

Nematodes infect freshwater, marine and brackish water fish species.  Pathology normally occurs within the intestines but can infect all organs and substantial damage to the host can occur. Some nematodes cause high levels of fish mortality in wild fish populations.  

[[:Category:Nematodes|Nematodes]] infect '''freshwater, marine''' and '''brackish water fish species'''.  Pathology normally occurs within the '''intestines''' but can affect all organs and substantial damage to the host can occur. Some nematodes cause high levels of fish mortality in wild fish populations. Nematodes can infect fish as adults but larval stages of nematodes infecting piscivorous birds, mammals or reptiles, or less frequently predatory fish, can also infect fish species.  

Anguillicola,Philometra, Skrjabillanus, Anisakis are a few of the species that are zoonotic.  Adult stages of Anisakis spp., Pseudoterranova spp., Phocascaris spp. and Contracaecum spp occur in whales and seals, whereas their third-stage larvae occur in fish musculature.  Ingestion of uncooked infected fish meat poses a zoonotic threat to humans.  Following ingestion by humans the larvae are activated by high temperatures, acidic pH and pepsinogen within the stomach.  They penetrate the gastric or intestinal mucosa, resulting in stomach cramps and abdominal pain. The worms can also migrate to other areas of the body.  Nematodes also cause an economic threat to the market value of fish, through consumer attitudes towards the presence of these parasites within food products.  Infected fillets are rejected and can increase production costs.  Disease is mainly found within wild fish populations as captive fish are feed non-infected feed.

==Signalment==

==Signalment==

Nematodes can infect fish as adults but larval stages of piscivorous birds, mammals or reptiles, or less frequently of predatory fishes nematodes can also infect fish species.  Fish within niche habitats tend to have a narrow host range compared to fish species found all over the world. Severe disease can arise when a nematode colonises a new host species for example nematodes of Japanese eel, A. crassus causes mild disease but in European and American eel species it causes more severe pathology. Skrjabillanid genera (Skrjabillanus tincae, Skrjabillanus cyprini, Molnaria Intestinalis, Sinoichthyonema amuri, infect only one host, whereas Capillaria species can colonise numerous fish species.   

Fish within '''niche habitats''' tend to have a '''narrow host range''' compared to fish species found all over the world. '''Severe disease''' can arise when a '''nematode colonises a new host species''', for example nematodes of Japanese eel, ''A. crassus'', causes mild disease but in European and American eel species it causes more severe pathology. ''Skrjabillanid'' genera (''Skrjabillanus tincae'', ''Skrjabillanus cyprini'', ''Molnaria intestinalis'', ''Sinoichthyonema amuri''), infect only one host, whereas ''[[Capillaria]]'' species can colonise numerous fish species.   

Adult stages of ''Anisakis'' spp., ''Pseudoterranova'' spp., ''Phocascaris'' spp. and ''Contracaecum ''spp. occur in whales and seals, whereas their '''third-stage larvae''' occur in '''fish musculature'''.   

The nematodes deprive their host of food and can feed of host tissues, sera and blood causing emaciation and anaemia.  Clinical signs of fish nematodes vary and can range from deformed body shape, haemorrhage, mortality, traumatic enteritis ,loss of balance through damage to their swim bladder, reduced swimming performance, lethargy, reduced sexual display rate, ulceration of gill cover, fraying of fins, large nodules on the ventral surface of the skin and fish can be seen on swimming or floating on their sides. Infected fish can be more susceptible to decreased oxygen content in the water. Pathogen such as Philonema and Philometra can cause atrophy or destruction of gonads, ascites and distension of the abdomen.

 

Nematodes can affect a wide range of species including eels, sturgeons, bream, pike, cod, trout, carp, bass, rays, skate, bleaks, arapaima, perches, piranha zander, lingcod, viviparous blenny (European eelpout) and aquarium species such as guppy (millionfish) and discus fish. They can also infect mammals such as ''Cetacea'' (whales, dolphins and porpoises) and ''Phocidae'' (seals).

 

Fish nematodes can also infect humans and they '''penetrate the gastric or intestinal mucosa''', resulting in '''stomach cramps and abdominal pain'''. The worms can also migrate to other areas of the body.  

==Epidemiology==

==Epidemiology==

Sexual maturity is reached through a complicated multi-host life cycle.  Any disruptions to these cycles prevent the development of fish nematodes; therefore cultured fish taken from their natural environment they are less likely to develop nematode infections. They do however affect aquarium species.   

 

Immune reactions in the host to live and dead worms, accentuate the severity of the disease by the production of immunoglobulin E (IgE), mast-cell degranulation, eosinophilia, causing oedema and urticaria.  

Sexual maturity of the nematodes is reached through a complicated '''multi-host life cycle'''.  Any disruptions to these cycles prevent the development of the adult nematodes, therefore cultured fish taken from their natural environment are less likely to develop nematode infections. Nematodes do, however, affect aquarium fish species.   

Nematodes have two main types of antigens soluble excretory and secretory (E/S) that elicit both humoral (antibody production) and cellular host reactions.   

 

Immune reactions in the host to live and dead worms accentuate the severity of the disease by  

the production of immunoglobulin E ([[IgE]]), mast-cell degranulation, [[eosinophilia]], causing oedema and urticaria. Nematodes have two main types of antigens soluble excretory and secretory (E/S) that elicit both humoral ([[Immunoglobulins - Overview|antibody production]]) and [[Adaptive Immune System - Overview|cellular host reactions]].   

==Distribution==

==Distribution==

Nematodes have been shown in fish stock in Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Hungary and Russia.

 

Nematodes have been shown in fish stock in '''Africa, North America, South America, Europe '''and '''Russia'''.

 

The nematodes deprive their host of food and can feed on host tissues, sera and blood causing '''emaciation and anaemia'''. Clinical signs of nematode infestation vary and can range from deformed body shape, '''haemorrhage''', mortality, traumatic enteritis, '''loss of balance''' through damage to their swim bladder, reduced swimming performance, lethargy, reduced sexual display rate, ulceration of gill cover, '''fraying of fins''', large '''nodules''' on the ventral surface of the skin and fish can be seen swimming or floating on their sides. Infected fish can be more susceptible to decreased oxygen content in the water. Pathogen such as '''''Philonema''''' and '''''Philometra''''' can cause '''atrophy or destruction of gonads, ascites''' and '''distension of the abdomen'''.

==Pathology==

==Pathology==

Nemotodes cause an array of different pathogencity within fish and can cause damage to the GI tract, swim bladder, gonads, internal organs (especially the liver), gills , eye and skin.  Mechanical damage to the mucosa and submucosa by nematode migration and proteolytic damage from nematode enzymes are common. Larger parasites can cause deformation of organs and body shape, mesenteric and visceral adhesions, granulomas, haemorrhage, deep nodules with in the stomach wall and general inflammation. Some nematodes can cause blockages to the GI tract .   

Nemotodes cause an array of different pathogenicity within fish and can cause '''damage to the GI tract, swim bladder, gonads, internal organs (especially the liver), gills , eye and skin'''.  Mechanical damage to the mucosa and submucosa by nematode migration and proteolytic damage from nematode enzymes are common. Larger parasites can cause deformation of organs and body shape, mesenteric and visceral adhesions, granulomas, haemorrhage, deep nodules within the stomach wall and general inflammation. Some nematodes can cause blockages to the GI tract .   

 

 

==Diagnosis==

==Diagnosis==

Larger skin parasites such as Philometra and C. acipenseris species can be easily seen as, red parasites in the opercula and on the fins and from raised nodules respectively. Gut and organ inhabiting nematodes will need to be found on post-mortem and microscopic examination of infected tissue. Histozoic species such as skrjabillanid can be identified under the microsope from scrapings of intestinal serosa. Squash preparations of infected organs between two sildes can be used for larval nematodes and radiographs have been used to diagnose Anguillicola within the swim bladder.

Larger skin parasites such as ''Philometra'' and ''C. acipenseris'' species can be easily seen as, red parasites in the opercula and on the fins and from raised nodules surrounding migrating larvae respectively. Gut and organ inhabiting nematodes will need to be found on post-mortem and microscopic examination of infected tissue. Histozoic species such as ''skrjabillanid'' can be identified under the microsope from scrapings of intestinal serosa. Squash preparations of infected organs between two slides can be used for larval nematodes. Radiographs have been used to diagnose ''Anguillicola'' within the swim bladder.

PCR can be used for accurate diagnosiss of species.

 

'''PCR can be used for accurate diagnosis of nematode species'''.

==Treatment==

==Treatment==

There is no effective drug against fish nematodes but drugs such as flubendazol, levamisole, mebendazole, trichlorphon and triclabendazole have been used.

There is no effective drug against all fish nematodes but drugs such as flubendazol, levamisole, mebendazole, trichlorphon and triclabendazole may be effective against some species.

==Control==

==Control==

Freezing at -20°C for 24 hours, heating above 60°C or salting will kill Anisakis larvae.  Pseudoterranova larvae can be killed at 30°C for 15 h or at 20°C for 7 days.  Dead nematodes can trigger immune reactions as they contain immunogenic molecules.   

Freezing at -20°C for 24 hours, heating above 60°C or salting will kill ''Anisakis'' larvae.  ''Pseudoterranova'' larvae can be killed at 30°C for 15 h or at 20°C for 7 days, but dead nematodes can trigger immune reactions in human hosts as they contain immunogenic molecules.   

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