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==Introduction==
==Introduction==
Pasteurella multocida is a very small, non-motile, gram-negative, ovoid, coccoid or short rod. It is aerobic and facultatively anaerobic. <br>
[[Pasteurella multocida]] is a very small, non-motile, gram-negative, ovoid, coccoid or short rod. It is aerobic and facultatively anaerobic. <br>
Pasteurella multocida can reside in the nasal cavity of rabbits without causing disease. Such rabbits are carriers and can infect in contact animals. <br>
Pasteurella multocida can reside in the nasal cavity of rabbits without causing disease. Such rabbits are carriers and can infect in-contact animals. <br>
It seldom causes disease in pet rabbits, but can cause serious infection in colonies of rabbits kept for breeding, meat or fur production or in laboratories. <br>
It seldom causes disease in pet rabbits, but can cause serious infection in colonies of rabbits kept for breeding, meat or fur production or in laboratories. <br>
Pregnancy, parturition, lactation, poor husbandry, overcrowding, stress, nutritional deficiencies, genetic predisposition and bacterial virulence all affect the course of the disease, which can lead the bacteria to multiply uncontrollably and overwhelm respiratory tract defences. <br>
Pregnancy, parturition, lactation, poor husbandry, overcrowding, stress, nutritional deficiencies, genetic predisposition and bacterial virulence all affect the course of the disease, which can lead the bacteria to multiply uncontrollably and overwhelm respiratory tract defences. <br>
*Pneumonia: Either acute and rapidly fatal or chronic with incidental pneumonic lesions found during post-mortem examination of apparently healthy rabbits
*Pneumonia: Either acute and rapidly fatal or chronic with incidental pneumonic lesions found during post-mortem examination of apparently healthy rabbits
*Genital infection: The bacteria can be found in the vagina of a high number of carrier animals and can be spread at mating. Pyometra can be a manifestation of pasteurellosis.
*Genital infection: The bacteria can be found in the vagina of a high number of carrier animals and can be spread at mating. Pyometra can be a manifestation of pasteurellosis.
*Wound infections and abscesses:
*Wound infections and abscesses: The organism can contaminate tissues during licking and grooming and is often isolated from infected bite wounds and abscesses. Also in facial abscesses due to dental disease.
*Dacryocystitis: Purulent infections of the nasolacrimal duct lead mainly to:
**Nasal discharge
**Conjunctivitis
*Otitis media: Pasteurella multocida can spread to the tympanic bulla, affecting the vestibulocochlear nerve and causing vestibular disease, manifesting as:
**Head tilt
**Rolling
**Nystagmus
==Diagnosis==
Clinical signs are suggestive, but diagnostic tests are required to isolate the organism and detect subclinical carriers.
<br>
*Deep nasal swab under sedation or anaesthesia for bacterial culture
False negatives can occur as the samples are not always deep enough or rabbits might have already received antibiotics.
Pasteurella multocida can also be difficult to grow in a laboratory setting.
*Serological and PCR testing (in the USA): Rising antibody titres demonstrate exposure to infection.<br>
It is important to note that other organisms and diseases can cause clinical signs similar to those of pasteurellosis. Most importantly:
*Dental disease ([[Cheek Teeth Malocclusion – Rabbit|Cheek teeth malocclusion]], [[Incisor Overgrowth – Rabbit|Incisor overgrowth]])
*Nasal foreign bodies
*Infections with bacteria such as: [[Bordetella bronchiseptica|Bordetella]], [[Pseudomonas species - Overview|Pseudomonas]] and [[Staphylococcosis – Rabbit|Staphylococcus]] species
==Treatment==
Treatment depends on the clinical symptoms and the emotional value of the rabbit affected by the disease.
<br>
Rabbits should receive long-term systemic antibiotics selected for their efficacy against the organism (preferably through culture and sensitivity testing). These include antibiotics such as: Cefalexin, Enrofloxacin, Tetracycline, Trimethoprim-sulpha.
<br>
Supportive care such as ensuring adequate hydration, nutrition and the prevention of ileus can also contribute to a successful outcome.
==Control and prevention==
This will focus mainly on control in breeding, laboratory and commercial rabbit colonies, which are most severely affected by the disease.<br>
Good husbandry is an essential part of disease control. Stress, intercurrent disease, poor air quality and overcrowding can trigger the flare up of latent infections. A clean, dry, well-ventilated environment is required with no draughts. Rabbits can withstand cold better than heat, and fluctuations in temperature should be avoided with a temperature maintained at around 16-20°c.
<br>
Affected cases should be isolated and treated or culled promptly. Keeping batches separate and minimising contact between groups reduces disease transmission.
<br>
Disease free status can be achieved in colonies through barrier-housing and quarantine of any new stock.
Rabbits are placed in isolation for 2-4 weeks and multiple samples from their nasal cavities are submitted for culture. Only rabbits with negative cultures are then used for breeding.<br>
Serology and PCR can also be used to detect disease-free stock.<br>
Antibiotics have been used prophylactically to prevent Pasteurella infection by administering them in the feed of water of pregnant does.<br>
There appears to be a genetic resistance to Pasteurella infection and attempts have been made to produce disease-free strains of rabbits.<br>
Vaccines are still being developed but protection seems to be incomplete and results have been disappointing.
==References==
Keeble, E. (2006) Common neurological and musculoskeletal problems in rabbits, In Practice 28: 212-218 <br>
Sant, R. Rowland, M. (2009) Skin disease in rabbits, In Practice 31: 233-239 <br>
Harcourt-Brown, F. (2002) Textbook of rabbit medicine, Elsevier Health Sciences <br>
Harkness, J. Turner, P.(2010) Harkness and Wagner's Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents, Wiley-Blackwell <br>
Baker, D. (2003) Natural pathogens of laboratory animals: their effect on research; ASM Press <br>
[[Category:To Do - Helen]]
[[Category:To Do - Helen]]