Changes

====Pyridoxine====

====Pyridoxine====

Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is a cofactor in the production of serotonin, and there is evidence that supplementation can alter tryptophan metabolism to produce higher central nervous system (CNS) levels of 5-hydroxytryptophan and serotonin in studies involving laboratory animals<ref>Calderón-Guzmána, D., Hernández-Islasa, J.L., Espitia-Vázqueza, I., Barragán-Mejı́aa, G.,  Hernández-Garcı́aa, E., Santamarı́a-del Ángela, D., Juárez-Olguı́nb, H. (2004) Pyridoxine, regardless of serotonin levels, increases production of 5-hydroxytryptophan in rat brain. Archives of Medical Research. 35(4).271–274.</ref>. However, the specific effects of this vitamin alone on behaviour in cats and dogs has not been established. Caution should be exercises regarding pyridoxine dose, given that it is potentially neurotoxic in overdose<ref>Rao, D.B., Jortner, B.S., Sills, R.C. (2014) Animal models of peripheral neuropathy due to environmental toxicants. ILAR J. 54(3):315-23.</ref>.

[[Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) - Nutrition|Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)]] is a cofactor in the production of serotonin, and there is evidence that supplementation can alter tryptophan metabolism to produce higher central nervous system (CNS) levels of 5-hydroxytryptophan and serotonin in studies involving laboratory animals<ref>Calderón-Guzmána, D., Hernández-Islasa, J.L., Espitia-Vázqueza, I., Barragán-Mejı́aa, G.,  Hernández-Garcı́aa, E., Santamarı́a-del Ángela, D., Juárez-Olguı́nb, H. (2004) Pyridoxine, regardless of serotonin levels, increases production of 5-hydroxytryptophan in rat brain. Archives of Medical Research. 35(4).271–274.</ref>. However, the specific effects of this vitamin alone on behaviour in cats and dogs has not been established. Caution should be exercises regarding pyridoxine dose, given that it is potentially neurotoxic in overdose<ref>Rao, D.B., Jortner, B.S., Sills, R.C. (2014) Animal models of peripheral neuropathy due to environmental toxicants. ILAR J. 54(3):315-23.</ref>.

====Fatty Acids====

====Fatty Acids====

For cats, cis-linoleic and arachidonic acid are essential fatty acids. However, other fatty acids, specifically long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are essential for normal development<ref>Innis, S.M. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr 2007:137:855-9</ref>.  DHA and EPA have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects<ref>Serini, S., Bizzarro, A., Piccioni, E., Fasano, E., Rossi, C., Lauria, A., Cittadini, A.R., Masullo, C., Calviello, G. (2012) EPA and DHA differentially affect in vitro inflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Alzheimer's patients. Curr Alzheimer Res. 9(8):913-23.</ref><ref>Weldon, S.M., Mullen, A.C., Loscher, C.E., Hurley, L.A., Roche, H.M. (2007) Docosahexaenoic acid induces an anti-inflammatory profile in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. J Nutr Biochem. 18(4):250-8.</ref><ref>Mullen, A., Loscher, C.E., Roche, H.M. (2010) Anti-inflammatory effects of EPA and DHA are dependent upon time and dose-response elements associated with LPS stimulation in THP-1-derived macrophages.. J Nutr Biochem. 21(5):444-50.</ref>.

For cats, cis-linoleic and arachidonic acid are essential [[Fatty Acids Overview - Nutrition|fatty acids]]. However, other fatty acids, specifically long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are essential for normal development<ref>Innis, S.M. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr 2007:137:855-9</ref>.  DHA and EPA have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects<ref>Serini, S., Bizzarro, A., Piccioni, E., Fasano, E., Rossi, C., Lauria, A., Cittadini, A.R., Masullo, C., Calviello, G. (2012) EPA and DHA differentially affect in vitro inflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Alzheimer's patients. Curr Alzheimer Res. 9(8):913-23.</ref><ref>Weldon, S.M., Mullen, A.C., Loscher, C.E., Hurley, L.A., Roche, H.M. (2007) Docosahexaenoic acid induces an anti-inflammatory profile in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. J Nutr Biochem. 18(4):250-8.</ref><ref>Mullen, A., Loscher, C.E., Roche, H.M. (2010) Anti-inflammatory effects of EPA and DHA are dependent upon time and dose-response elements associated with LPS stimulation in THP-1-derived macrophages.. J Nutr Biochem. 21(5):444-50.</ref>.

There is evidence that higher levels of DHA in puppy diets produce improved cognitive performance in laboratory tests (reversal task learning, visual contrast discrimination, and early psychomotor performance)<ref> Zicker, S.C, Jewell, D.E., Yamka, R.M., et al. Evaluation of cognitive learning, memory, psychomotor, immunologic, and retinal functions in healthy puppies fed foods fortified with docosahexanoeic acid-rich fish oil from 8-52 weeks. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012;241:583-94</ref>, and are essential for normal retinal function<ref>Bauer, J.E., Heinemann, K.M., Lees, G.E., et al. Retinal functions of young dogs are improved and maternal plasma phospholipids are altered with diets containing long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation, lactation, and after weaning. J Nutr 2006;1191S-994S</ref> and neurological development. <ref>Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E., Docosaheaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006;228:700-6</ref>.

There is evidence that higher levels of DHA in puppy diets produce improved cognitive performance in laboratory tests (reversal task learning, visual contrast discrimination, and early psychomotor performance)<ref> Zicker, S.C, Jewell, D.E., Yamka, R.M., et al. Evaluation of cognitive learning, memory, psychomotor, immunologic, and retinal functions in healthy puppies fed foods fortified with docosahexanoeic acid-rich fish oil from 8-52 weeks. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012;241:583-94</ref>, and are essential for normal retinal function<ref>Bauer, J.E., Heinemann, K.M., Lees, G.E., et al. Retinal functions of young dogs are improved and maternal plasma phospholipids are altered with diets containing long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation, lactation, and after weaning. J Nutr 2006;1191S-994S</ref> and neurological development. <ref>Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E., Docosaheaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006;228:700-6</ref>.

There is also some evidence that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may have a role in the treatment of psychiatric problems in people<ref>Ross, B.M., Seguin, J., Sieswerda, (2007) L.E. 3 Omega-3 fatty acids as treatments for mental illness: which disorder and which fatty acid? Lipids in Health and Disease. 6:21.</ref>.

There is also some evidence that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may have a role in the treatment of psychiatric problems in people<ref>Ross, B.M., Seguin, J., Sieswerda, (2007) L.E. 3 Omega-3 fatty acids as treatments for mental illness: which disorder and which fatty acid? Lipids in Health and Disease. 6:21.</ref>.

==Antioxidant enriched diets==

==Antioxidant Enriched Diets==

Antioxidant enriched diets have been shown to have short, medium and long term effects on memory and perception in dogs with cognitive dysfunction syndrome<ref>Milgram, N.W., Head, E., Zicker, S.C., Ikeda-Douglas, C.J., Murphey, H., Muggenburg, B., Siwak, C., Tapp, D., Cotman, C.W. (2005) Learning ability in aged beagle dogs is preserved by behavioral enrichment and dietary fortification: a two-year longitudinal study. Neurobiology of Aging. 26. 77–90.</ref> <ref>Milgram, N.W., Head, E., Muggenburg, B., Holowachuka, D., Murphey, H., Estradaa, J., Ikeda-Douglas, C.C., Zickerd, S.C., Cotman, C.W.  (2002) Landmark discrimination learning in the dog: effects of age, an antioxidant fortified food, and cognitive strategy. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 26. 679–695</ref> <ref>Milgram, N.W., Zicker, S.C., Head, E., Muggenburg, B.A., Murphey, H., Ikeda-Douglas, C.J., Cotman, C.W. ( 2002) Dietary enrichment counteracts age-associated cognitive dysfunction in canines. Neurobiology of Aging. 23. 737–745.</ref>.

Antioxidant enriched diets have been shown to have short, medium and long term effects on memory and perception in dogs with cognitive dysfunction syndrome<ref>Milgram, N.W., Head, E., Zicker, S.C., Ikeda-Douglas, C.J., Murphey, H., Muggenburg, B., Siwak, C., Tapp, D., Cotman, C.W. (2005) Learning ability in aged beagle dogs is preserved by behavioral enrichment and dietary fortification: a two-year longitudinal study. Neurobiology of Aging. 26. 77–90.</ref> <ref>Milgram, N.W., Head, E., Muggenburg, B., Holowachuka, D., Murphey, H., Estradaa, J., Ikeda-Douglas, C.C., Zickerd, S.C., Cotman, C.W.  (2002) Landmark discrimination learning in the dog: effects of age, an antioxidant fortified food, and cognitive strategy. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 26. 679–695</ref> <ref>Milgram, N.W., Zicker, S.C., Head, E., Muggenburg, B.A., Murphey, H., Ikeda-Douglas, C.J., Cotman, C.W. ( 2002) Dietary enrichment counteracts age-associated cognitive dysfunction in canines. Neurobiology of Aging. 23. 737–745.</ref>.

==Medium Chain Triglycerides==

==Medium Chain Triglycerides==

In human Alzheimer's disease, CNS hypo metabolism may be a target for dietary therapy<ref>Costantini, L.C., Barr, L.J., Vogel, J.L., Henderson, S.T. (2008) Hypometabolism as a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease. BMC Neuroscience. 9(Suppl 2). S16.</ref>. Ketone bodies, such as beta-hydroxybutyrate, are a potential supplementary energy source for neurones, and support cells, with impaired oxidative phosphorulation systems. Supplementation with beta-hydroxybutyrate has been shown to improve cognition in human adults with memory impairment<ref>Reger, M.A., Henderson, S.T., Hale, C., Cholerton, B., Baker, L.D., Watson, G.S., Hyde, K., Chapman, D., Craft, S. (2004) Effects of Beta-hydroxybutyrate on cognition in memory-impaired adults. Neurobiology of Aging. 25. 311–314.</ref>. Medium chain triglycerides, which are metabolised to beta-hydroxybutyrate by the liver, have been shown to produce beneficial effects on the cognition of aged dogs<ref>Pan, Y., Larson, B., Araujo, J.A., Lau, W., de Rivera, C., Santana, R., Gore, A., Milgram, N.W. (2010) Dietary supplementation with medium-chain TAG has long-lasting cognition-enhancing effects in aged dogs. British Journal of Nutrition. 103. 1746–1754.</ref>.

In human Alzheimer's disease, CNS hypo metabolism may be a target for dietary therapy<ref>Costantini, L.C., Barr, L.J., Vogel, J.L., Henderson, S.T. (2008) Hypometabolism as a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease. BMC Neuroscience. 9(Suppl 2). S16.</ref>. Ketone bodies, such as beta-hydroxybutyrate, are a potential supplementary energy source for [[Neurons - Anatomy & Physiology|neurones]], and support cells, with impaired oxidative phosphorulation systems. Supplementation with beta-hydroxybutyrate has been shown to improve cognition in human adults with memory impairment<ref>Reger, M.A., Henderson, S.T., Hale, C., Cholerton, B., Baker, L.D., Watson, G.S., Hyde, K., Chapman, D., Craft, S. (2004) Effects of Beta-hydroxybutyrate on cognition in memory-impaired adults. Neurobiology of Aging. 25. 311–314.</ref>. Medium chain triglycerides, which are metabolised to beta-hydroxybutyrate by the liver, have been shown to produce beneficial effects on the cognition of aged dogs<ref>Pan, Y., Larson, B., Araujo, J.A., Lau, W., de Rivera, C., Santana, R., Gore, A., Milgram, N.W. (2010) Dietary supplementation with medium-chain TAG has long-lasting cognition-enhancing effects in aged dogs. British Journal of Nutrition. 103. 1746–1754.</ref>.

==References==

==References==

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[[Category:Feline Behaviour Management]]

[[Category:Feline Behaviour Management]]