Changes

====Cats and Carbohydrates:====  

====Cats and Carbohydrates:====  

Cats are able to digest and absorb dietary sugars and starches well<ref name="Morris" /> but have low glucokinase activity in the liver<ref>Tanaka A, ''et al.'' (2005)''' Comparison of expression of glucokinase gene and activities of enzymes related to glucose metabolism in livers between dog and cat. '''''Vet Res Commun ''2005;29:477-485. </ref> and do not adapt carbohydrate metabolism to dietary intake.<ref>Buddington RK, ''et al.'' (1991) '''Dietary regulation of intestinal brush-border sugar and amino acid transport in carnivores.''''' Am J Physiol ''1991;261:R793–801.</ref> There has been controversy over the role of dietary carbohydrate in development of obesity and [[DM|diabetes mellitus]] in cats but carbohydrate intake has not been shown to be a risk factor in development of obesity,<ref> Backus RC, ''et al.'' (2007)''' Gonadectomy and high dietary fat but not high dietary carbohydrate induce gains in body weight and fat of domestic cats.''''' Br J Nutr ''2007;98:641-650.</ref> hyperglycaemia<ref>Hoenig M, ''et al.'' (2012)''' Evaluation of long-term glucose homeostasis in lean and obese cats using continuous glucose monitoring.''''' AJVR'' 2012:73:1100-1106.</ref> or [[Diabetes Mellitus|diabetes mellitus]]<ref>Verbrugghe A,'' et al.'' (2012)''' Nutritional modulation of insulin resistance in the true carnivorous cat: a review. '''''Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr'' 2012;52:172–182.</ref> in otherwise healthy adult cats.

Cats are able to digest and absorb dietary sugars and starches well<ref name="Morris" /> but have low glucokinase activity in the [[Liver - Anatomy & Physiology|liver]]<ref>Tanaka A, ''et al.'' (2005)''' Comparison of expression of glucokinase gene and activities of enzymes related to glucose metabolism in livers between dog and cat. '''''Vet Res Commun ''2005;29:477-485. </ref> and do not adapt carbohydrate metabolism to dietary intake.<ref>Buddington RK, ''et al.'' (1991) '''Dietary regulation of intestinal brush-border sugar and amino acid transport in carnivores.''''' Am J Physiol ''1991;261:R793–801.</ref> There has been controversy over the role of dietary carbohydrate in development of obesity and [[DM|diabetes mellitus]] in cats but carbohydrate intake has not been shown to be a risk factor in development of obesity,<ref> Backus RC, ''et al.'' (2007)''' Gonadectomy and high dietary fat but not high dietary carbohydrate induce gains in body weight and fat of domestic cats.''''' Br J Nutr ''2007;98:641-650.</ref> hyperglycaemia<ref>Hoenig M, ''et al.'' (2012)''' Evaluation of long-term glucose homeostasis in lean and obese cats using continuous glucose monitoring.''''' AJVR'' 2012:73:1100-1106.</ref> or [[Diabetes Mellitus|diabetes mellitus]]<ref>Verbrugghe A,'' et al.'' (2012)''' Nutritional modulation of insulin resistance in the true carnivorous cat: a review. '''''Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr'' 2012;52:172–182.</ref> in otherwise healthy adult cats.

==Consequences of Deficiency==

==Consequences of Deficiency==

====Dogs:====  

====Dogs:====  

Puppies, especially '''small and toy breeds''', may be unable to maintain blood glucose concentrations from hepatic gluconeogenesis alone and can become hypoglycaemic with low intake of dietary carbohydrates.<ref>Vroom MW and Slappendel RJ. (1987) '''Transient juvenile hypoglycaemia in a Yorkshire terrier and in a Chihuahua.''''' Vet Q'' 1987;9:172-176.</ref> Hepatic gluconeogenesis may also be inadequate to meet glucose demands during '''late gestation and lactation''' unless increased intake of gluconeogenic amino acids are provided in the diet.<ref>Romsos DR, ''et al.'' (1981)''' Influence of low carbohydrate diet on performance of pregnant and lactating dogs.''''' J Nutr ''1981;111:678-689.</ref> There are no clinical signs of feeding a carbohydrate-free diet in otherwise healthy adult dogs, though some dogs with recurrent idiopathic colitis may benefit from feeding higher fibre diets.<ref>Leib MS. (2000) '''Treatment of chronic idiopathic large-bowel diarrhea in dogs with a highly digestible diet and soluble fiber: a retrospective review of 37 cases. '''''JVIM ''2000;14:27-32.</ref>

Puppies, especially '''small and toy breeds''', may be unable to maintain blood glucose concentrations from hepatic gluconeogenesis alone and can become hypoglycaemic with low intake of dietary carbohydrates.<ref>Vroom MW and Slappendel RJ. (1987) '''Transient juvenile hypoglycaemia in a Yorkshire terrier and in a Chihuahua.''''' Vet Q'' 1987;9:172-176.</ref> Hepatic gluconeogenesis may also be inadequate to meet glucose demands during '''late gestation and lactation''' unless increased intake of [[Amino Acids Overview - Nutrition|gluconeogenic amino acids]] are provided in the diet.<ref>Romsos DR, ''et al.'' (1981)''' Influence of low carbohydrate diet on performance of pregnant and lactating dogs.''''' J Nutr ''1981;111:678-689.</ref> There are no clinical signs of feeding a carbohydrate-free diet in otherwise healthy adult dogs, though some dogs with recurrent idiopathic colitis may benefit from feeding higher fibre diets.<ref>Leib MS. (2000) '''Treatment of chronic idiopathic large-bowel diarrhea in dogs with a highly digestible diet and soluble fiber: a retrospective review of 37 cases. '''''JVIM ''2000;14:27-32.</ref>

====Cats:====  

====Cats:====  

==Dietary Sources==

==Dietary Sources==

Dietary carbohydrates (both absorbable and non-absorbable) are primarily found in '''fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, and pulses '''(i.e., legumes). Animal sourced carbohydrates (glycogen) are also found in '''muscle and liver'''.  

Dietary carbohydrates (both absorbable and non-absorbable) are primarily found in '''fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, and pulses '''(i.e. legumes). Animal sourced carbohydrates (glycogen) are also found in '''muscle and liver'''.

==Diagnosing Carbohydrate Deficiency==

==Diagnosing Carbohydrate Deficiency==

If there is low to absent carbohydrate intake with insufficient hepatic gluconeogenesis, clinical signs of hypoglycemia can occur (such as lethargy and seizures). Blood glucose concentrations below the normal laboratory reference interval will be seen on serum biochemistry profiles.  

If there is low to absent carbohydrate intake with insufficient hepatic gluconeogenesis, clinical signs of hypoglycemia can occur (such as lethargy and [[seizures]]). Blood glucose concentrations below the normal laboratory reference interval will be seen on serum biochemistry profiles.  

Animals consuming inadequate dietary fibre may exhibit signs of colitis (e.g. tenesmus, hematochezia, mucousy loose stool, increased frequency of defecation), that resolves with addition of fibre to the diet.

Animals consuming inadequate dietary fibre may exhibit signs of colitis (e.g. tenesmus, hematochezia, mucousy loose stool, increased frequency of defecation), that resolves with addition of fibre to the diet.

==References==

==References==

<references />

<references />

[[Category:Carbohydrates]]

[[Category:Carbohydrates]]