Changes

==Introduction==

==Introduction==

===Small strongyles – Cyathostomins===

===Small strongyles – Cyathostomins===

Elderly and immuno-compromised animals should be treated with caution, ensuring any supportive treatments necessary are given prophylactically prior to or at the time of deworming. Treatment may need to be delayed in extremely unwell animals and should be given at a time when observation post-treatment is possible.

Elderly and immuno-compromised animals should be treated with caution, ensuring any supportive treatments necessary are given prophylactically prior to or at the time of deworming. Treatment may need to be delayed in extremely unwell animals and should be given at a time when observation post-treatment is possible.

[http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ The Donkey Sanctuary] recommends a different faecal sampling and treatment programme for pregnant jennies and youngstock. More details are available on request.

[http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ The Donkey Sanctuary] recommends a different faecal sampling and treatment programme for pregnant jennies and youngstock. More details are available on request.

===Control===

===Control===

The [[Anthelmintic Drugs|anthelmintic]] control programme which has been operating at [http://drupal.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ The Donkey Sanctuary] for many years now has been devised so that it fulfils the following criteria:  

The [[Anthelmintic Drugs|anthelmintic]] control programme operating at [http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ The Donkey Sanctuary] is reviewed regularly to ensure that:  

* it is effective in controlling [[Helminths|helminths]]

* it is effective in controlling pasture contamination

* it reduces the incidence of cyathostomosis

* it reduces the incidence of cyathostomosis

* it slows down the development of [[Anthelmintic Resistance|resistance to anthelmintics]]  

* it slows down the development of [[Anthelmintic Resistance|resistance to anthelmintics]]  

* it is cost-effective. The reduced cost of [[Anthelmintic Drugs|anthelmintics]] has offset the increased laboratory costs.

* it is cost-effective. The reduced cost of [[Anthelmintic Drugs|anthelmintics]] has offset the increased laboratory costs.

At [http://drupal.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ The Donkey Sanctuary] no donkey is given [[Anthelmintic Drugs|anthelmintic]] unless it has a positive egg count above 200 epg. Although this effectively means regularly examining the faeces of all the donkeys, it has several beneficial effects:

At [http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ The Donkey Sanctuary] no donkey is given an [[Anthelmintic Drugs|anthelmintic]] unless it is deemed necessary by a clinician taking into account the animal’s history and recent FECs. Clinical cases presenting with cyathostomosis are treated with anthelmintics regardless of faecal egg count results.  

# To reduce handling and stress to the donkey when the whole herd is wormed

This programme means regularly examining the faeces of all the donkeys, as opposed to administering treatment to the whole herd. Benefits include:

# To reduce handling and stress to the donkey when the whole herd is dewormed

# To reduce exposure of adult worms to repeated doses of [[Anthelmintic Drugs|anthelmintic]] and therefore development of [[Anthelmintic Resistance|resistance]]

# To reduce exposure of adult worms to repeated doses of [[Anthelmintic Drugs|anthelmintic]] and therefore development of [[Anthelmintic Resistance|resistance]]

# To help create a ‘refuge’ of susceptible larvae on the pasture to compete with resistant strains

# To help create a ‘refugia’ of susceptible larvae on the pasture to compete with resistant strains

 

It is claimed that 99% of worms occur on the pasture, whereas 1% occur in the horse (Rose et al, 2000). This statement is equally applicable to the donkey and so no worm control programme should depend solely on drugs. It should also include good pasture and stable management:

It is claimed that 99% of worms occur on the pasture, whereas 1% occur in the horse (Rose et al, 2000). This statement is equally applicable to the donkey and so no worm control programme should depend solely on drugs. It should also include good pasture and stable management:

* Good stable hygiene

* Good pasture hygiene

* Rotational grazing, proper pasture management and harrowing pastures is most important

* Rotational grazing, proper pasture management and harrowing pastures (when weather conditions are optimal) is most important

* The use of a ‘biological vacuum’ (sheep³ ) is still pertinent to ingest larvae on the pasture and is used on [http://wwww.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ the Donkey Sanctuary’s] land both in winter and early spring.

* The use of a ‘biological vacuum’ (sheep³ ) is still pertinent to ingest larvae on the pasture and is used on [http://wwww.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ the Donkey Sanctuary’s] land both in winter and early spring.

* Removal of dung at least twice a week in the summer is carried out mechanically

* Removal of dung at least twice a week either manually or mechanically significantly reduces pasture contamination (Corbett et al)

* If donkeys are at pasture in the winter months then faecal sampling may need to be carried out throughout the year

* Grazing pasture should be rested at least five months of the year (the estimated survival time of cyathostomins)

* If donkeys are at pasture in the winter months then faecal sampling may need to be carried out throughout the year depending upon weather conditions

* Managing young stock, which has lower worm larva immunity, on separate pastures from older groups

* Grazing pasture should be rested for as much of the year as possible

* Managing young stock, which has lower natural immunity to parasites, on separate pastures from older groups

³ The use of sheep may increase the incidence of the stomach worm ''Trichostrongylus axei'', but the pathogenecity of this species in donkeys is rarely a problem.

³ The use of sheep may increase the incidence of the stomach worm ''Trichostrongylus axei'', but the pathogenecity of this species in donkeys is rarely a problem.

Application of the above principles can be applied to donkeys in most cases. Owners should always be advised to consult their veterinary surgeon regarding periodicity of faecal sampling/worming with regard to their own specific circumstances.

The above principles can be applied to donkeys in most cases. Owners should always be advised to consult their veterinary surgeon regarding periodicity of faecal sampling/worming with regard to their own specific circumstances.

Under tropical weather conditions in most developing countries, the dry season is not favourable for the development and survival of the freeliving and parasitic stages and so there is relatively little danger of acquiring infection at this time of year. Generally, animals have a high probability of acquiring infection from pasture during and immediately following wet seasons. Treating donkeys at the beginning and end of the rainy season therefore seems to be sufficient under such climatic conditions. This is usually practised in Ethiopia and other developing countries where the farmers cannot afford frequent treatment for their animals.

Under tropical weather conditions in most developing countries, the dry season is not favourable for the development and survival of the free living and parasitic stages and so there is relatively little danger of acquiring infection at this time of year. Generally, animals have a high probability of acquiring infection from pasture during and immediately following wet seasons. Treating donkeys at the beginning and end of the rainy season therefore seems to be sufficient under such climatic conditions. This is usually practised in Ethiopia and other developing countries where the farmers cannot afford frequent treatment for their animals.

The efficacy of worming strategies in any country should be carefully monitored by laboratory analysis and condition scoring. An epidemiological assessment of weight loss or anaemia should complement any monitoring process to determine the impact of dental disease and/or poor nutrition.

The efficacy of worming strategies in any country should be carefully monitored by laboratory analysis and condition scoring. An epidemiological assessment of weight loss or anaemia should complement any monitoring process to determine the impact of dental disease and/or poor nutrition.

==References==

==References==

* Lichtenfels, J.R., Kharchenko, V.A., Krecek, R.C., and Gibbons, L.M. (1998). ‘An annotated checklist by genus and species of 93 species level names for 51 recognised species of small strongyles (Nematoda: Strongyloidea: Cyathostominea) of horses, asses and zebras of the world’. ''Vet. Parasitol''., 79. pp 65-79.

* Lichtenfels, J.R., Kharchenko, V.A., Krecek, R.C., and Gibbons, L.M. (1998). ‘An annotated checklist by genus and species of 93 species level names for 51 recognised species of small strongyles (Nematoda: Strongyloidea: Cyathostominea) of horses, asses and zebras of the world’. ''Vet. Parasitol''., 79. pp 65-79.

* Pandey, V.S., Eysker, M. (1989). ‘''Strongylus vulgaris'' in donkeys (Equus asinus) from the highveld of Zimbabwe’. ''Vet. Parasitol'. 32. pp 173-179.

* Pandey, V.S., Eysker, M. (1989). ‘''Strongylus vulgaris'' in donkeys (Equus asinus) from the highveld of Zimbabwe’. ''Vet. Parasitol'. 32. pp 173-179.

* Rose, R.J., Hodgson, D.R. (2000). ''Manual of Equine Practice''. W.B Saunders, Pennsylvania, USA.

* Rose, R.J., Hodgson, D.R. (2000). ''Manual of Equine Practice''. W.B Saunders, Pennsylvania, USA.

* Trawford, A.F., Morriss, C.J., Bell, N.J., and Reid, S.W.J. (2001). ‘Comparing the Efficacy of Moxidectin with Ivermectin in the Donkey’. Paper presented at: The 18th International Conference of the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology. 26-30 August. Stressa, Italy.

* Trawford, A.F., Morriss, C.J., Bell, N.J., and Reid, S.W.J. (2001). ‘Comparing the Efficacy of Moxidectin with Ivermectin in the Donkey’. Paper presented at: The 18th International Conference of the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology. 26-30 August. Stressa, Italy.