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* '''Physical manipulation''' – it can relieve dystocia in species where individual eggs can be palpated and gently manipulated to the cloaca. The procedure carries the risk of egg rupture, oviduct rupture, prolapse and perhaps death. Risks are decreased if this procedure is carried out under general anaesthetic.
* '''Physical manipulation''' – it can relieve dystocia in species where individual eggs can be palpated and gently manipulated to the cloaca. The procedure carries the risk of egg rupture, oviduct rupture, prolapse and perhaps death. Risks are decreased if this procedure is carried out under general anaesthetic.
* '''Percutaneous ovocentesis''' - this method involves inserting a large gauge needle through the ventrum into the egg and aspirating the contents (this method is often very successful in Elaphe species). This results in a smaller egg that may be easier to pass. Caution must be taken to not allow any of the egg contents to escape into the coelomic cavity. Aspiration must be done within the 48 hours of cessation of laying since the eggs harden making aspiration impossible. Hormonal stimulation may be used to start contractions if they do not start on their own after the aspiration. Prostaglandins have also been recommended. Antibiotics should be given prophylactically. If the eggs are not expelled within 48 hours of aspiration consider surgical removal.
* '''Percutaneous ovocentesis''' - this method involves inserting a large gauge needle through the ventrum into the egg and aspirating the contents (this method is often very successful in Elaphe species). This results in a smaller egg that may be easier to pass. Caution must be taken to not allow any of the egg contents to escape into the coelomic cavity. Aspiration must be done within the 48 hours of cessation of laying since the eggs harden making aspiration impossible. Hormonal stimulation may be used to start contractions if they do not start on their own after the aspiration. Prostaglandins have also been recommended. Antibiotics should be given prophylactically. If the eggs are not expelled within 48 hours of aspiration consider surgical removal.
* '''Use of pancreatic enzymes''' - if the contents are inspissated, pancreatic enzymes may be injected into the caudal egg. Great care must be taken not to inject the proteolytic enzymes into the coelomic cavity. If the egg softens over the following 48 hours it may then be aspirated by ovocentesis.
* If oviposition/parturition does not occur within 2 or more weeks or the reptile becomes dehydrated and lethargic, consider an ovariosalpingectomy.
* If oviposition/parturition does not occur within 2 or more weeks or the reptile becomes dehydrated and lethargic, consider an ovariosalpingectomy.
* '''Surgery''' - is indicated for relief of dystocia if the above fail, if there is an obstruction or if there is prolapsed devitalised oviduct tissue. Surgery may involve single or multiple salpingotomy, unilateral or bilateral salpingectomy or unilateral or bilateral ovariosalpingectomy.
Follow the following procedure for salpingotomy:
**Left ventrolateral skin incision between the first and second scale row overlying the retained egg or foetus
**Incise oviduct and remove eggs; one or several incisions may be necessary
**Close oviduct with 5/0 vicryl
**Routine skin closure
===Prevention===
===Prevention===