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==Introduction==
==Introduction==
Nematodes infect freshwater, marine and brackish water fish species. Pathology normally occurs within the intestines but can infect all organs and substantial damage to the host can occur. Some nematodes cause high levels of fish mortality in wild fish populations.
Nematodes infect freshwater, marine and brackish water fish species. Pathology normally occurs within the intestines but can infect all organs and substantial damage to the host can occur. Some nematodes cause high levels of fish mortality in wild fish populations.
Anguillicola,Philometra, Skrjabillanus, Anisakis are a few of the species that are zoonotic. Adult stages of Anisakis spp., Pseudoterranova spp., Phocascaris spp. and Contracaecum spp occur in whales and seals, whereas their third-stage larvae occur in fish musculature. Ingestion of uncooked infected fish meat poses a zoonotic threat to humans. Following ingestion by humans the larvae are activated by high temperatures, acidic pH and pepsinogen within the stomach. They penetrate the gastric or intestinal mucosa, resulting in stomach cramps and abdominal pain. The worms can also migrate to other areas of the body. Nematodes also cause an economic threat to the market value of fish, through consumer attitudes towards the presence of these parasites within food products. Infected fillets are rejected and can increase production costs. Disease is mainly found within wild fish populations as captive fish are feed non-infected feed.
''Anguillicola'', ''Philometra'', ''Skrjabillanus'', ''Anisakis'' are a few of the species that are '''zoonotic'''. Adult stages of ''Anisakis spp''., ''Pseudoterranova spp''., ''Phocascaris spp''. and ''Contracaecum spp'' occur in whales and seals, whereas their third-stage larvae occur in fish musculature. '''Ingestion of uncooked infected fish meat''' poses a zoonotic threat to humans. Following ingestion by humans the larvae are activated by high temperatures, acidic pH and pepsinogen within the stomach. They penetrate the gastric or intestinal mucosa, resulting in '''stomach cramps and abdominal pain'''. The worms can also migrate to other areas of the body. Nematodes also cause an economic threat to the market value of fish, through consumer attitudes towards the presence of these parasites within food products. Infected fillets are rejected and can increase production costs. Disease is mainly found within wild fish populations as captive fish are feed non-infected feed.
==Signalment==
==Signalment==
Nematodes can infect fish as adults but larval stages of piscivorous birds, mammals or reptiles, or less frequently of predatory fishes nematodes can also infect fish species. Fish within niche habitats tend to have a narrow host range compared to fish species found all over the world. Severe disease can arise when a nematode colonises a new host species for example nematodes of Japanese eel, A. crassus causes mild disease but in European and American eel species it causes more severe pathology. Skrjabillanid genera (Skrjabillanus tincae, Skrjabillanus cyprini, Molnaria Intestinalis, Sinoichthyonema amuri, infect only one host, whereas Capillaria species can colonise numerous fish species.
Nematodes can infect fish as adults but larval stages of piscivorous birds, mammals or reptiles, or less frequently of predatory fishes nematodes can also infect fish species. Fish within niche habitats tend to have a narrow host range compared to fish species found all over the world. Severe disease can arise when a nematode colonises a new host species for example nematodes of Japanese eel, ''A. crassus'' causes mild disease but in European and American eel species it causes more severe pathology. ''Skrjabillanid'' genera (''Skrjabillanus tincae'', ''Skrjabillanus cyprini'', ''Molnaria Intestinalis'', ''Sinoichthyonema amuri'', infect only one host, whereas ''Capillaria'' species can colonise numerous fish species.
Nematodes can affect a wide range of species including eels, sturgeons, bream, pike, cod, trout, carp,bass, rays, skate, bleaks, arapaima, perches, piranha zander, lingcod, viviparous blenny (European eelpout) and aquairium species such as guppy (millionfish) and discus fish. They can also infect mammals such as ''Cetacea'' (Whales, dolphins and Porpoises) and ''Phocidae'' (seals).
==Clinical Signs==
==Clinical Signs==
==Epidemiology==
==Epidemiology==
Sexual maturity is reached through a complicated multi-host life cycle. Any disruptions to these cycles prevent the development of fish nematodes; therefore cultured fish taken from their natural environment they are less likely to develop nematode infections. They do however affect aquarium species.
Sexual maturity is reached through a complicated multi-host life cycle. Any disruptions to these cycles prevent the development of fish nematodes; therefore cultured fish taken from their natural environment they are less likely to develop nematode infections. They do however affect aquarium species.
Immune reactions in the host to live and dead worms, accentuate the severity of the disease by the production of immunoglobulin E (IgE), mast-cell degranulation, eosinophilia, causing oedema and urticaria.
Immune reactions in the host to live and dead worms, accentuate the severity of the disease by the production of immunoglobulin E (IgE), mast-cell degranulation, eosinophilia, causing oedema and urticaria. Nematodes have two main types of antigens soluble excretory and secretory (E/S) that elicit both humoral (antibody production) and cellular host reactions.
Nematodes have two main types of antigens soluble excretory and secretory (E/S) that elicit both humoral (antibody production) and cellular host reactions.
==Distribution==
==Distribution==
In some nematode infections the accumulation of granule cells, leucocytes and macrophages and epithelial fibroblasts around third-stage larvae can be seen.
In some nematode infections the accumulation of granule cells, leucocytes and macrophages and epithelial fibroblasts around third-stage larvae can be seen.
With Schulmanela (Hepaticola) petruschewskiies and liver damaging pathogens a greyish discoloration of the liver, with pinhead and larger nodulescan be seen along with hyperaemia, petechial haemorrhages and icterus. Histologically, worms, fibrinous-serous exudate, haemorrhage and hyperaemia of the liver capillaries can be seen with leucocytic infiltration, epithelioid cell proliferation and giant cells.
With ''Schulmanela (Hepaticola) petruschewskiies'' and other liver damaging pathogens a greyish discoloration of the liver, with pinhead and larger nodulescan be seen along with hyperaemia, petechial haemorrhages and icterus. Histologically, worms, fibrinous-serous exudate, haemorrhage and hyperaemia of the liver capillaries can be seen with leucocytic infiltration, epithelioid cell proliferation and giant cells.
Swim bladder damage can be caused by species such as Cystidicola and Anguillicola, and epithelial hyperplasia, hyperaemia and necrotic areas around migrating larvae can be seen in the swim bladder wall, which can give rise to secondary bacterial infections. Continual damage by migrating larvae cause fibrosis and thicking of the swim bladder.
Swim bladder damage can be caused by species such as ''Cystidicola'' and ''Anguillicola'', and epithelial hyperplasia, hyperaemia and necrotic areas around migrating larvae can be seen in the swim bladder wall, which can give rise to secondary bacterial infections. Continual damage by migrating larvae cause fibrosis and thicking of the swim bladder.
Swelling of the scale sacs and inflammation and haemorrhaging under the scales can be seen with nematodes such as Philometra and Philometroides which are known to infect the skin, fins and gill epithelium.
Swelling of the scale sacs and inflammation and haemorrhaging under the scales can be seen with nematodes such as ''Philometra'' and ''Philometroides'' which are known to infect the skin, fins and gill epithelium.
==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
Larger skin parasites such as Philometra and C. acipenseris species can be easily seen as, red parasites in the opercula and on the fins and from raised nodules respectively. Gut and organ inhabiting nematodes will need to be found on post-mortem and microscopic examination of infected tissue. Histozoic species such as skrjabillanid can be identified under the microsope from scrapings of intestinal serosa. Squash preparations of infected organs between two sildes can be used for larval nematodes and radiographs have been used to diagnose Anguillicola within the swim bladder.
Larger skin parasites such as ''Philometra'' and ''C. acipenseris'' species can be easily seen as, red parasites in the opercula and on the fins and from raised nodules respectively. Gut and organ inhabiting nematodes will need to be found on post-mortem and microscopic examination of infected tissue. Histozoic species such as ''skrjabillanid'' can be identified under the microsope from scrapings of intestinal serosa. Squash preparations of infected organs between two sildes can be used for larval nematodes and radiographs have been used to diagnose ''Anguillicola'' within the swim bladder.
PCR can be used for accurate diagnosiss of species.
'''PCR can be used for accurate diagnosiss of species'''.
==Treatment==
==Treatment==
==Control==
==Control==
Freezing at -20°C for 24 hours, heating above 60°C or salting will kill Anisakis larvae. Pseudoterranova larvae can be killed at 30°C for 15 h or at 20°C for 7 days. Dead nematodes can trigger immune reactions as they contain immunogenic molecules.
Freezing at -20°C for 24 hours, heating above 60°C or salting will kill ''Anisakis'' larvae. ''Pseudoterranova'' larvae can be killed at 30°C for 15 h or at 20°C for 7 days, but dead nematodes can trigger immune reactions in human hosts as they contain immunogenic molecules.
==References==
==References==
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