Changes

Also Known As '''''– Apoplectiform Septicaemia – Enterococcosis – Sleeping sickness - Streptococcosis'''''

Also Known As: ''''Apoplectiform Septicaemia – Enterococcosis – Sleeping Sickness  - Streptococcosis'''''

Caused By – ''Streptococcus alactolyticus – S. bovis – S. dysgalactiae – S. equi – S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus – S. gallylyticus – S. mutans – S. pleomorphus – [[Streptococcus suis|''S. suis'']] - Enterococcus avium – E. caecorum – E. columbae - [[Enterococcus faecalis|E. faecalis]] – E. durans – E. gallinarum - E. hirae – E. mundtii''

Caused By: ''Streptococcus alactolyticus – S. bovis – S. dysgalactiae – S. equi – S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus – S. gallylyticus – S. mutans – S. pleomorphus – [[Streptococcus suis|S. suis]] - Enterococcus avium – E. caecorum – E. columbae - [[Enterococcus faecalis|E. faecalis]] – E. durans – E. gallinarum - E. hirae – E. mundtii''

==Introduction==

==Introduction==

The majority of infections from these pathogens are '''opportunistic.'''

The majority of infections from these pathogens are '''opportunistic.'''

There does '''not appear to be any zoonotic risk''' to humans from ingestion or infected birds with these infections, with the exception of [[Streptococcus suis]] which is rare in birds and more commonly acquired from pigs. There are however concerns regarding the spread of Vancomycin Resistant Enterococci '''(VRE)''' to humans from poultry.

There does '''not appear to be any zoonotic risk''' to humans from ingestion or infected birds with these infections, with the exception of ''[[Streptococcus suis]]'' which is rare in birds and more commonly acquired from pigs. There are however concerns regarding the spread of Vancomycin Resistant Enterococci '''(VRE)''' to humans from poultry.

==Distribution==

==Distribution==

==Diseases==

==Diseases==

===Streptococcosis===

===Streptococcosis===

This group of pathogens cause a range of syndromes, most commonly septicaemia, '''peritonitis'''<ref name="Edwards"> Edwards, P. R., Hull, F. E (1937) '''Haemolytic streptococci in chronic peritonitis and salpingitis of hens.''' J American Vet Med Assoc, 44:656-660</ref>, '''salpingitis'''<ref name="Edwards" /> and '''endocarditis'''.<ref name="Jortner"> Jortner, B. S., Helmboldt, C. F (1971) '''Streptococcal bacterial endocarditis in chickens associated lesions of the central nervous system.''' Veterinary Pathology, 8:54-62</ref>

This group of pathogens cause a range of syndromes, most commonly septicaemia, '''peritonitis'''<ref name="Edwards"> Edwards, P. R., Hull, F. E (1937) '''Haemolytic streptococci in chronic peritonitis and salpingitis of hens.''' ''J American Vet Med Assoc'', 44:656-660</ref>, '''salpingitis'''<ref name="Edwards" /> and '''endocarditis'''.<ref name="Jortner"> Jortner, B. S., Helmboldt, C. F (1971) '''Streptococcal bacterial endocarditis in chickens associated lesions of the central nervous system.''' ''Veterinary Pathology'', 8:54-62</ref>

Thus clinical signs also vary widely and may range from anorexia, lethargy and [[Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] to high mortality rates and severe neurological signs, lameness or jaundice.

Thus clinical signs also vary widely and may range from anorexia, lethargy and [[Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] to high mortality rates and severe neurological signs, lameness or [[jaundice]].

Many other species not discussed here have been isolated from healthy birds and are thought to be non-pathogenic.

Many other species not discussed here have been isolated from healthy birds and are thought to be non-pathogenic.

====''S. gallolyticus''====

====''S. gallolyticus''====

Known as a facultative pathogen in '''racing pigeons causing acute mortality, lameness, weight loss, diarrhoea and inability to fly'''. Also causes '''mortality in  turkey poults.'''<ref> Droual, R., Ghazikhanian, G. Y., Shivaprasad, H. L., Barr, B. C., Bland, M. B (1997) '''Streptococcus bovis infection in turkey poults.''' Avian Pathology, 26(2):433-439; 10</ref>

Known as a facultative pathogen in '''racing pigeons causing acute mortality, lameness, weight loss, diarrhoea and inability to fly'''. Also causes '''mortality in  turkey poults.'''<ref> Droual, R., Ghazikhanian, G. Y., Shivaprasad, H. L., Barr, B. C., Bland, M. B (1997) '''Streptococcus bovis infection in turkey poults.''' ''Avian Pathology'', 26(2):433-439; 10</ref>

====''S. dysgalactiae''====

====''S. dysgalactiae''====

====''S.mutans''====

====''S.mutans''====

'''Septicaemia and mortality in geese'''.<ref> Ivanics, é., Bitay, Z., Glávits, R (1984) '''Streptococcus mutans infection in geese.''' Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja, 39(2):92-95; [5 fig.]; 20</ref>

'''Septicaemia and mortality in geese'''.<ref> Ivanics, é., Bitay, Z., Glávits, R (1984) '''Streptococcus mutans infection in geese.''' ''Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja'', 39(2):92-95; [5 fig.]; 20</ref>

====''S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus''====

====''S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus''====

Associated with '''endocarditis, peritonitis, salpingitis, egg drop, septicaemia and high mortality in chickens'''<ref> Peckham, M. C (1966) '''An outbreak of streptococcosis (apoplectiform septicemia) in white rock chickens.''' Avian Diseases, 10:413-421</ref> <ref name="Edwards" />and also massive mortality in eared grebes. In turkeys, the same pathogen is thought to be responsible for septicaemia.

Associated with '''endocarditis, peritonitis, salpingitis, egg drop, septicaemia and high mortality in chickens'''<ref> Peckham, M. C (1966) '''An outbreak of streptococcosis (apoplectiform septicemia) in white rock chickens.''' ''Avian Diseases'', 10:413-421</ref> <ref name="Edwards" /> and also massive mortality in eared grebes. In turkeys, the same pathogen is thought to be responsible for septicaemia.

====''S. suis''====

====''S. suis''====

''S. suis'' has been associated with '''septicaemia in psittacine''' birds.<ref> Devriese, L. A., Haesebrouck, F., Herdt, Pde., Dom, P., Ducatelle, R., Desmidt, M., Messier, S., Higgins, R (1994) '''Streptococcus suis infections in birds.''' Avian Pathology, 23(4):721-724; 10</ref>

''[[Streptococcus suis|S. suis]]'' has been associated with '''septicaemia in psittacine''' birds.<ref> Devriese, L. A., Haesebrouck, F., Herdt, Pde., Dom, P., Ducatelle, R., Desmidt, M., Messier, S., Higgins, R (1994) '''Streptococcus suis infections in birds.''' ''Avian Pathology'', 23(4):721-724; 10</ref>

===Enterococcosis===

===Enterococcosis===

Enterococci are frequently involved in infections of '''day old chicks''', affecting primarily the yolk sac.

Enterococci are frequently involved in infections of '''day old chicks''', affecting primarily the yolk sac.

'''''[[Enterococcus faecalis|E. faecalis]]''''' has been most frequently associated with avian clinical disease including '''endocarditis''' in chickens<ref name="Jortner" /> and '''hepatic granulomas''' in turkeys.<ref> Hernandez, D. J., Roberts, E. D., Adams, L. G., Vera, T (1972) '''Pathogenesis of hepatic granulomas in turkeys infected with Streptococcus faecalis var. liquefaciens'''. Avian Diseases, 15:201-216</ref> It can also cause '''amyloid arthropathies and concurrent systemic amyloidosis'''.<ref>Landman, W. J. M., Gruys, E., Dwars, R. M (1994) '''A syndrome associated with growth depression and amyloid arthropathy in layers: a preliminary report'''. Avian Pathology, 23(3):461-470; 38</ref> In '''ducks''', the same pathogen can cause '''arthritis'''<ref>Bisgaard, M (1981) '''Arthritis in ducks. Etiology and public health aspects'''. Avian Pathology, 10:11-21</ref> and '''septicaemia in ducklings'''.<ref> Sandhu, T. S (1988) '''Fecal streptococcal infection of commercial white pekin ducklings.''' Avian Diseases, 32(3):570-573; 9</ref> ''E. faecalis'' can also affect '''canaries, causing tracheitis'''.<ref> Devriese, L. A., Uyttebroek, E., Ducatelle, R., Viaene, N., Derijcke, J., Gevaert, D (1990) '''Tracheitis due to Enterococcus faecalis infection in canaries'''. J Assoc Avian Veterinarians, 4(2):113-116; 5</ref>

'''''[[Enterococcus faecalis|E. faecalis]]''''' has been most frequently associated with avian clinical disease including '''endocarditis''' in chickens<ref name="Jortner" /> and '''hepatic granulomas''' in turkeys.<ref> Hernandez, D. J., Roberts, E. D., Adams, L. G., Vera, T (1972) '''Pathogenesis of hepatic granulomas in turkeys infected with Streptococcus faecalis var. liquefaciens'''. ''Avian Diseases'', 15:201-216</ref> It can also cause '''amyloid arthropathies and concurrent systemic amyloidosis'''.<ref>Landman, W. J. M., Gruys, E., Dwars, R. M (1994) '''A syndrome associated with growth depression and amyloid arthropathy in layers: a preliminary report'''. ''Avian Pathology'', 23(3):461-470; 38</ref> In '''ducks''', the same pathogen can cause '''arthritis'''<ref>Bisgaard, M (1981) '''Arthritis in ducks. Etiology and public health aspects'''. ''Avian Pathology'', 10:11-21</ref> and '''septicaemia in ducklings'''.<ref> Sandhu, T. S (1988) '''Fecal streptococcal infection of commercial white pekin ducklings.''' ''Avian Diseases'', 32(3):570-573; 9</ref> ''E. faecalis'' can also affect '''canaries, causing tracheitis'''.<ref> Devriese, L. A., Uyttebroek, E., Ducatelle, R., Viaene, N., Derijcke, J., Gevaert, D (1990) '''Tracheitis due to Enterococcus faecalis infection in canaries'''. ''J Assoc Avian Veterinarians'', 4(2):113-116; 5</ref>

''E. durans'' can cause '''bacteraemia and encephalomalacia in young chicks'''.<ref> Cardona, C. J., Bickford, A. A., Charlton, B. R., Cooper, G. L (1993) '''Enterococcus durans infection in young chickens associated with bacteremia and encephalomalacia'''. Avian Diseases, 37(1):234-239; 9</ref> ''E. hirae'' can also cause similar brain lesions.<ref> Randall, C. J., Wood, A. M., MacKenzie, G (1993) '''Encephalomalacia in first-week chicks'''. Veterinary Record, 132(16):418; 2</ref>

''E. durans'' can cause '''bacteraemia and encephalomalacia in young chicks'''.<ref> Cardona, C. J., Bickford, A. A., Charlton, B. R., Cooper, G. L (1993) '''Enterococcus durans infection in young chickens associated with bacteremia and encephalomalacia'''. ''Avian Diseases'', 37(1):234-239; 9</ref> ''E. hirae'' can also cause similar brain lesions.<ref> Randall, C. J., Wood, A. M., MacKenzie, G (1993) '''Encephalomalacia in first-week chicks'''. ''Veterinary Record'', 132(16):418; 2</ref>

==Diagnosis==

==Diagnosis==

The pathogens can then be cultured on sheep or ox '''blood agar, selective blood agar or MacConkey''' agar. Serological Lancefield testing can also be performed on beta haemolytic colonies.

The pathogens can then be cultured on sheep or ox '''blood agar, selective blood agar or MacConkey''' agar. Serological Lancefield testing can also be performed on beta haemolytic colonies.

On '''necropsy''', changes in chickens, ducks and turkeys are similar and various organs may be affected, dependent of the species involved. Septicaemic birds are the most common presentation, in which the '''liver is pale and friable and viscera within both abdominal and thoracic cavities are congested with yellow or orange-ish discolouration'''. There may be a '''sero-fibrinous or serosanguinous exudate''' covering some organs. The skin may be discoloured and crusting in cases of '''cellulitis/dermatitis and joint lesions''' possibly with '''yellow caseous exudates''' occur in septic arthritis. Vegetative lesions are indicative of endocarditis. Infarcts can be present in any organ. In birds with '''encephalomalacia''', lesions may be found anywhere except the cerebellum and yellow discolourations will be seen; malacia and heterophilic infiltration are visible microscopically. '''Pectoral muscle necrosis''' is pathognomic for S. gallolyticus septicaemia in pigeons.

On '''necropsy''', changes in chickens, ducks and turkeys are similar and various organs may be affected, dependent of the species involved. Septicaemic birds are the most common presentation, in which the '''liver is pale and friable and viscera within both abdominal and thoracic cavities are congested with yellow or orange-ish discolouration'''. There may be a '''sero-fibrinous or serosanguinous exudate''' covering some organs. The skin may be discoloured and crusting in cases of '''cellulitis/dermatitis and joint lesions''' possibly with '''yellow caseous exudates''' occur in septic arthritis. Vegetative lesions are indicative of endocarditis. Infarcts can be present in any organ. In birds with '''encephalomalacia''', lesions may be found anywhere except the cerebellum and yellow discolourations will be seen; malacia and heterophilic infiltration are visible microscopically. '''Pectoral muscle necrosis''' is pathognomic for ''S. gallolyticus'' septicaemia in pigeons.

 

The organism can often be visualised in microscopic sections as generic gram positive cocci.

The organism can often be visualised in microscopic sections as generic gram positive cocci.

==Treatment==

==Treatment==

Culture and sensitivity should always be performed whenever possible before selecting treatment. The efficacy of treatment '''deteriorates with progression''' of disease within a flock. Chronic cases especially those involving endocarditis and arthritis often do not respond.

Culture and sensitivity should always be performed whenever possible before selecting treatment. The efficacy of treatment '''deteriorates with progression''' of disease within a flock. Chronic cases, especially those involving endocarditis and arthritis, often do not respond.

'''Amoxycillin''' appears to be the drug of first choice for most infections according to sensitivity studies in poultry.  

'''Amoxycillin''' appears to be the drug of first choice for most infections according to sensitivity studies in poultry.  

Animal Health & Production Compendium, '''Streptococcus & Enterococcus infections – Poultry datasheet''', accessed 06/07/2011 @ http://www.cabi.org/ahpc/

Animal Health & Production Compendium, '''Streptococcus & Enterococcus infections – Poultry datasheet''', accessed 06/07/2011 @ http://www.cabi.org/ahpc/

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