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Line 100: + + − For birds suffering from reproductive hormonal pressure, some success has been achieved with the administration of '''progesterones''' to decrease the hormonal pressurein sexually frustrated birds but some treated birds become obese, suffer from polyuria/polydipsia, diabetes mellitus or develop hepatic lipidosis. Recently, '''human chorionic gonadotrophin''' (HCG) (500–1000 IU kg-1 i.m.) has shown promise in providing effective, short-term resolution, especially in African grey parrots and cockatoo hens. There have been no reports of adverse reactions with this treatment but it is not always reliable. − '''Tranquillizing agents''' – such as haloperidol – and '''psychotropic agents''' – such as clomipramine and Prozac – have shown some limited effectiveness in some individual cases. These medications can only provide a temporary solution and should be used in combination with '''behaviour modification techniques''' and '''changes in the bird’s environment''' to provide a more reliable response. − '''Petting''' on the bird’s back and intimate cuddling should be '''reduced or eliminated'''. For the '''owner''' to '''assert dominance''' the '''bird''' should be maintained '''below human chest height'''. The cage may be moved to a location away from the main traffic area to reduce the anxiety of seeing the owner without being cuddled. The '''length of the day may be shortened''' by covering the cage earlier in the evening and, in the case of females, surgical '''removal of the oviduct''' may provide the best long-term solution. In some cases, the picking becomes a habit, even though the original cause is resolved and long-term, '''anti-compulsive medication''' may be indicated.
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Feather-plucking is a '''common''' presenting sign in birds. Underlying causes are often '''multifactorial''', so diagnosis and treatment of several of the contributing factors may be necessary to produce resolution of clinical signs. It is best to rule out '''medical''' causes before diagnosing the feather-plucking as '''behavioral''' in origin, therefore a thorough work-up is indicated including a detailed history, physical and dermatological exam. '''Referral''' may be considered.
Feather-plucking is a '''common''' presenting sign in birds. Underlying causes are often '''multifactorial''', so diagnosis and treatment of several of the contributing factors may be necessary to produce resolution of clinical signs. It is best to rule out '''medical''' causes before diagnosing the feather-plucking as '''behavioral''' in origin, therefore a thorough work-up is indicated including a detailed history, physical and dermatological exam. '''Referral''' may be considered.
Individual tests such as; '''haemotology''', '''biochemistry''', '''heavy metal testing''', '''sexing''', '''skin acetates''', '''pulp cytology''' and '''faecal staining''' should all be performed in the initial work up to guide diagnosis. Additional tests that should be considered are; ''Chlamydophila'' testing, circovirus testing, coeloscopy, radiography, skin biopsy, crop biopsy and faecal flotation (for ''Giardia'' and other helminths).
Individual tests such as; '''haemotology''', '''biochemistry''', '''heavy-metal testing''', '''sexing''', '''skin acetates''', '''pulp cytology''' and '''faecal staining''' should all be performed in the initial work up to guide diagnosis. Additional tests that should be considered are; ''Chlamydophila'' testing, circovirus testing, coeloscopy, radiography, skin biopsy, crop biopsy and faecal flotation (for ''Giardia'' and other helminths).
The causes of feather-plucking can be divided up into three categories:
The causes of feather-plucking can be divided up into three categories:
(2)''' Non-infectious and metabolic cause'''
(2)''' Non-infectious and metabolic cause'''
(3) '''Psychological causes'''
(3) '''Environmental causes'''
(4) '''Psychological causes'''
=Infectious, contagious or transmissible causes of feather plucking=
=Infectious, contagious or transmissible causes of feather plucking=
==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
'''PCR''' for PBFD and BFD; '''physical examination''' at day and night for ectoparasites; '''faecal examination''' for endoparasites; '''PCR/ELISA''' (antigen/antibody) for chlamydiosis; '''skin scrape''' microscopic examination and '''culture''' for fungal dermatitis; '''stained impression smear''', '''culture''' and '''sensitivity''' for bacterial infections. Also, '''haematology''' and '''biochemistry''', '''thyroid stimulation test''', '''biopsy''' and '''histopathology''', improved '''diet''' and '''monitoring response to therapy'''.
* '''PCR''' should be performed to diagnose PBFD and BFD
* Ectoparasites can be identified by performing a '''physical examination''' during the day and night
* A'''faecal exam''' is required to diagnose endoparasites
* '''PCR/ELISA''' (antigen/antibody) is used to identify chlamydiosis
* '''skin scraping''' followed by microscopic examination and '''culture''' is necessary to diagnose fungal dermatitis.
* '''stained impression smears''', '''culture''' and '''sensitivity''' should be performed if bacterial infection is suspected.
'''Haematology''' and '''biochemistry''', '''thyroid stimulation test''', '''biopsy''' and '''histopathology''', improving the '''diet''' and '''monitoring the response to therapy''' also help to confirm or eliminate diagnosis.
==Treatment==
==Treatment==
Treatment is dependant on the individual underlying cause.
Treatment is dependant on the individual underlying cause.
=Psychological causes of feather plucking=
=Environmental causes of feather plucking=
* Over-tiredness
* Poor bathing
* Inappropriate cage position and exposure to cooking or tobacco fumes
* Boredom and inadequate environmental enrichment
==Diagnosis==
This type of feather-plucking is caused by the '''environment''' provided for the bird. Therefore a detailed '''history''' may provide clues as to the origin of this behavior. Like psychological causes of feather-plucking, it is a diagnosis of exclusion, with all infectious aetiologies ruled out before confirming it as the diagnosis. The bird should appear clinically normal in all other aspects, unless fumes have caused skin irritation.
==Treatment==
Over-tiredness should be treated by imposing strict 'bed-times', and providing the bird with a ''''roost cage'''' in a quiet room. The bird should be placed in the 'roost cage' and covered at the same time each night, allowing for a peaceful nights sleep.
Poor bathing should be addressed by''' misting''' or '''bathing''' the bird '''daily''' with '''water'''. This should be done even if the bird appears to dislike water, as bathing is essential for feather maintenance.
The cage should be positioned away from any '''irritant fumes''' and potential '''predators'''. In addition it should be placed against a wall so that it is '''less exposed'''.
Boredom and inadequate environmental enrichment should be addressed by providing '''toys''' for the bird (under rotation) and by encouraging '''independent play'''.
=Psychological causes of feather plucking=
* Sexual frustration
* Attention seeking
* Attention seeking
* Boredom and separation anxiety
* Boredom and separation anxiety
* Overcrowding
* Overcrowding
* Environmental change or lack of routine
* Environmental change or poor routine
* Excessive preening
* Excessive preening
* Post untidy feather or wing clipping.
* Secondary to untidy feather or wing clipping.
==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
The psychological plucker presents as a '''clinically normal bird''' in all respects '''except for its plumage'''. Bacterial, fungal, parasitic, viral, chlamydial and metabolic aetiologies for feather plucking should be ruled out. The feathers on the '''head''' are totally '''normal''' (if head feathers are affected disease is most likely caused by an circovirus, bacterial or yeast infection). It is most common in '''hand-reared''' birds and plucking is often only done in the '''presence of the owner'''.
The psychological plucker presents as a '''clinically normal bird''' in all respects '''except for its plumage'''. Bacterial, fungal, parasitic, viral, chlamydial and metabolic aetiologies for feather plucking should be ruled out. The feathers on the '''head''' are totally '''normal''' (if head feathers are affected disease is most likely caused by an circovirus, bacterial or yeast infection). It is most common in '''hand-reared''' birds and plucking is often only done in the '''presence of the owner'''.
Reproductive hormonal pressure ''aka'' '''sexual frustration''' is the most common cause of psychological feather-plucking. It often begins to cause picking in young birds that are '''bonded''' to their '''owner''' even before reaching what is thought to be natural reproductive age.
Reproductive hormonal pressure ''aka'' '''sexual frustration''' is the most common cause of psychological feather-plucking. It often begins to when young birds that '''bonded''' to their '''owner''' which can occur earlier than what is thought to be the natural reproductive age.
Hormonal influences cause the young bird try and gain '''dominance'''over the other members of the flock'''. This relates to behavior in the wild which would result in the bird obtaining a mate, holding territory and having access to enough food, which in turn would allow it to reproduce.
Captive birds often mature earlier than wild birds, especially when the owner is providing all the necessary advantages as well as stimulating it with a close bond. Consequently the bird reaches reproductive maturity but the ‘mate’ is not responding in the manner that will result in the production of offspring. This often leads to ‘'''displacement behaviour'''’ such as '''feather picking''', '''screaming''' or '''aggression'''.
Captive birds mature more quickly than wild birds, because the owner is providing it with food etc and giving it attention, resulting in a close bond between the two. However, the ‘mate’/owner does not responding in the appropriate manner to the sexually mature bird. ‘'''Displacement behaviour'''’ such as '''feather picking''', '''screaming''' or '''aggression''' develops as a response to this.
==Treatment==
==Treatment==
For birds suffering from reproductive hormonal pressure, treatment with '''progesterones''' is reported, however significant side-effects such as obesity, polyuria/polydipsia, diabetes mellitus and develop hepatic lipidosis can occur. '''Human chorionic gonadotrophin''' (HCG) (500–1000 IU kg-1 i.m.) may an effective short-term treatment particularly in African grey parrots and cockatoo hens. Occasional success is seen with '''Tranquillisers''' (haloperidol) and '''psychotropic agents''' (clomipramine and Prozac).
All the medications should be used in combination with '''behavior and environmental management'''. '''Petting''' and cuddling should be '''decreased or stopped entirely'''. The cage should be placed below chest height and moved away from busy areas of the house. These actions assert dominance over the bird and reduce anxiety respectively. The cage should be covered up earlier in the day to shorten day length. Surgical '''removal of the oviduct''' may provide the best long-term solution in female birds. The picking may become a compulsive habit, in these cases compulsive behavior management and '''anti-compulsive medication''' (as mentioned below) may be indicated.
Attention seeking should be '''discouraged''' by the owner by '''ignoring''' the bird when it is feather plucking, and then fussing it when it has stopped. Gradually the bird should learn not to feather pluck.
Attention seeking should be '''discouraged''' by the owner by '''ignoring''' the bird when it is feather plucking, and then fussing it when it has stopped. Gradually the bird should learn not to feather pluck.
Overcrowding should clearly be managed by '''reducing the number of birds per cage''', or providing the bird with a '''larger cage'''.
Overcrowding should clearly be managed by '''reducing the number of birds per cage''', or providing the bird with a '''larger cage'''.
Environmental Change and poor routine should be managed by imposing a '''strict routine''', including set 'bed-times'. Environmental change should be minimised where possible.
Over-preening is considered a type of '''obsessive-compulsive behavior'''. To counteract this, the bird should be encouraged to '''play''' independently and any '''objects''' it may be scared of should be '''removed'''. The '''cage''' may also require '''re-positioning'''. As for attention-seeking, the behavior should not be encouraged. '''Anti-compulsive medication''' may be used.
Over-preening is considered a type of '''obsessive-compulsive behavior'''. To counteract this, the bird should be encouraged to '''play''' independently and any '''objects''' it may be scared of should be '''removed'''. The '''cage''' may also require '''re-positioning'''. As for attention-seeking, the behavior should not be encouraged. '''Anti-compulsive medication''' may be used.
==References==
==References==