Changes

==Introduction==

==Introduction==

Sinus infection can occur in any '''psittacine''' with a diet deficient in '''Vitamin A''' but is particularly common in imported grey parrots.

Sinus infection can occur in any '''psittacine''' but is particularly common in imported grey parrots. It was largely thought to be associated with a diet deficient in '''Vitamin A''' however there is now some controversy surrounding its contribution to the disease<ref name="one">Lawton, M (1999) '''Management of respiratory disease in psittacine birds''' ''In Practice 1999 21: 76-8''</ref> <ref name="three">Stanford, M (2009) '''Respiratory Disease in Birds''' Royal Veterinary College Integrated Course ''RVC''</ref>.

==Signalment==

==Signalment==

'''Hypovitaminosis A''' is a nutritional deficiency thought to predispose birds to sinusitis. This can occur if the bird is fed and '''all seed diet''', which is '''deficient''' in '''vitamin A''', '''iodine''' and '''calcium''', therefore it is essential that a full dietary history is taken. Vitamin A deficiency causes some cells to differentiate abnormally. This occurs in the sinus, where the epithelial lining degenerates into '''squamous metaplasia'''. This causes the '''mucus to thicken''', thus preventing debris from being flushed out of the sinus. This results in a '''build-up of debris and bacteria''', eventually resulting in infection. This deficiency can also contribute to the development of and '''rhinoliths''', '''abscesses''' and '''conjunctivitis'''.

'''Hypovitaminosis A''' is a nutritional deficiency thought to predispose birds to sinusitis <ref name="one">Lawton, M (1999) '''Management of respiratory disease in psittacine birds''' ''In Practice 1999 21: 76-8''</ref>. This can occur if the bird is fed and '''all seed diet''', which is '''deficient''' in '''vitamin A''', '''iodine''' and '''calcium''', therefore it is essential that a full dietary history is taken. Vitamin A deficiency causes some cells to differentiate abnormally. This occurs in the sinus, where the epithelial lining degenerates into '''squamous metaplasia'''. This causes the '''mucus to thicken''', thus preventing debris from being flushed out of the sinus. This results in a '''build-up of debris and bacteria''', eventually resulting in infection<ref name="two">Forbes NA & Altman RB (1998) '''Self-Assessment Colour Review Avian Medicine''' ''Manson Publishing Ltd''</ref>. This deficiency can also contribute to the development of and '''rhinoliths''', '''abscesses''' and '''conjunctivitis'''. Currently it is thought that sinusitis may not occur as a result of vitamin A deficiency as many parrot diets now have an excess of Vitamin A<ref name="three">Stanford, M (2009) '''Respiratory Disease in Birds''' Royal Veterinary College Integrated Course ''RVC''</ref>.

==Clinical Signs==

==Clinical Signs==

==Treatment==

==Treatment==

Ideally the bird should be treated with the '''antibiotic 'Baytril'''' as it covers the above-mentioned bacteria. Additionally the bird should receive a dose of '''Vitamin A''' by '''intramuscular''' injection. Subsequent dietary supplementation of Vitamin A by feeding '''orange''' and '''dark green vegetables''' is necessary to prevent recurrence of infection. Drainage and flushing of the sinus with antibiotics can be attempted in severe cases but due to the anatomy of the sinuses and the nature of the inspissated pus produced, it is normally unsuccessful. If rhinoliths or choanal abcesses are present they should be removed using a needle or dental instruments.  

Ideally the bird should be treated with the '''antibiotic 'Baytril'''' as it covers the above-mentioned bacteria. Additionally the bird should receive a dose of '''Vitamin A''' by '''intramuscular''' injection. Subsequent dietary supplementation of Vitamin A by feeding '''orange''' and '''dark green vegetables''' is necessary to prevent recurrence of infection<ref name="two">Forbes NA & Altman RB (1998) '''Self-Assessment Colour Review Avian Medicine''' ''Manson Publishing Ltd''<ref> <ref name="one">Lawton, M (1999) '''Management of respiratory disease in psittacine birds''' ''In Practice 1999 21: 76-8''</ref>. Drainage and flushing of the sinus with antibiotics in severe cases is recommended  by some <ref name="three">Stanford, M (2009) '''Respiratory Disease in Birds''' Royal Veterinary College Integrated Course ''RVC''</ref> but due to the anatomy of the sinuses and the nature of the inspissated pus produced, others report that it is normally unsuccessful<ref name="one">Lawton, M (1999) '''Management of respiratory disease in psittacine birds''' ''In Practice 1999 21: 76-8''</ref>. If rhinoliths or choanal abcesses are present they should be removed using a needle or dental instruments.  

==Prognosis==

==Prognosis==

==References==

==References==

 

 

[[Category: To Do - Siobhan Brade]]

[[Category: To Do - Siobhan Brade]]