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{{KeyPoints

{{KeyPoints

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|points = <br>

*Early experience during the sensitive period affects the way a cat interacts with people.

*Recognise and predict signs of fearful arousal.

*A lack of appropriate handling between two and seven weeks of age can lead to defensively aggressive behaviour which can become pre-emptive in situations causing fear.

*Avoid uncontrolled exposure to fear-eliciting situations and events.

*Kittens should be reared in complex and stimulating environments with a wide range of noises and contact with people and animals so these do not produce fear, anxiety or stress in the future.

*Identify and grade the stimuli and events that evoke fear.

*Fear-related aggression towards people in the home is treated using desensitisation and counter-conditioning procedures, often supported by pheromonotherapy.  

*Desensitise and counter condition the cat to these stimuli and events, starting with stimuli that evoke the least response.

*Identify contexts and other stimuli that contribute to raised fearful arousal.

*Desensitise and counter condition the cat to these contexts and stimuli.

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==Introduction==

==Introduction==

Tolerance or appreciation of human contact is learned as a result of early experience during the sensitive period. In many cases aggressive cats are the product of an unsatisfactory start in life and problems arise. For example, a lack of appropriate handling between two and seven weeks of age will cause a cat to grow up to be wary of people and to have a predisposition towards defensively aggressive behaviour if it is placed in a situation where it feels threatened. Experience teaches these individuals that their [[Feline Aggression - Overview|aggressive behaviour]] is very effective at maintaining distance between themselves and any person of whom they are suspicious. Before long the aggressive display is used as a pre-emptive rather than a reactionary behaviour. This results in a noticeable change in the cat’s strategy for dealing with fear. Early in the course of the problem, the cat will show noticeable signs of fear, attempting to use defence strategies such as running away or hiding. However, over time it will begin to select aggressive responses more readily so that a more offensive pattern of behaviour is seen. By the time some of these cases are brought to the attention of the veterinary practice or referred for specific professional advice the initial fearful motivation for the behaviour may be obscured by the cat’s overt hostility and offensive behaviour.  

Tolerance of human contact is learned as a '''result of early experience''' during the [[Feline Socialisation|sensitive period]]. For example, without appropriate handling between two and seven weeks of age a cat may grow up to be wary of people and to have a predisposition towards defensively aggressive behaviour, especially if it is placed in a situation where it feels threatened. Early traumatic experience has been found to be associated with increased aggression in cats<ref name="Ramos"/>.  

It is important to question the owner about any previous traumatic experience involving people, the use of inappropriate punishment for behaviour in the past or the presence of inappropriate and unintentional reward of the present behaviour.  

In the absence of positive experience with people, cats will avoid contact with them. However, if this is not possible and the cat is forced to remain in contact with people that it is afraid of, [[Feline Aggression - Overview|defensive aggressive behaviour]] can become an effective strategy for maintaining distance from them. With repeated negative experience in which escape and avoidance are impossible, cats may shift from an avoidant strategy to offensive aggression. By the time some of these cases are brought to the attention of the veterinary practice or referred for specific professional advice the initial fearful motivation for the behaviour may be obscured by the cat’s overt hostility and offensive behaviour. Aggression toward unfamiliar people is comparatively uncommon in cats, with the majority being defensive in nature<ref name="Fatjo"/>.

Cats that are exhibiting fear-related aggression toward people will often adopt characteristic postures and use defensive vocalisation prior to a defensive paw swipe, which is intended to drive the threat to a greater distance. The response of the person may be significant in the progression of the problem behaviour and it should be remembered that the owner’s attempts at reassurance often reinforce fear and aggression by increasing social pressure on the cat and thereby increasing the perception of threat. In situations where owners try to deal with the aggressive behaviour by punishing the cat, an anticipation of the owner’s apparent ‘aggression’ may increase the cat's fear further and lead to an escalation of the problem.  

Cats that are exhibiting fear-related aggression towards people will often adopt characteristic postures and use threatening vocalisation prior to a defensive swipe, which is intended to drive the threat to a greater distance. The response of the person may be significant in the progression of the problem behaviour and it should be remembered that the owner’s attempts at reassurance often intensify fear and aggression by increasing pressure on the cat removing its ability to carry out an avoidance behaviour (for example, picking the cat up to comfort it). In situations where owners try to deal with the aggressive behaviour by punishing the cat, an anticipation of the owner’s apparent ‘aggression’ may increase the cat's fear further and lead to an escalation of the problem.

==Prevention of Fear-Related Aggression Towards People==

In a Brazilian study the most common situations that elicited aggression towards the owner were when the cat was petted or put onto a lap, during play, when startled, when observing an unfamiliar animal, when in the presence of unfamiliar people and when protecting food or territory<ref name="Ramos"/>. Aggression when petted or put on the lap was the most common. The authors found that aggression was associated with an early traumatic event and outside access. Cats that did not like being stroked or did not get on well with other animals that they had contact with were more likely to show aggression in general. A range of other factors, including age, sex, neuter status, accommodation, origin, and social contact with people and other cats were not significantly associated with increased aggression. However, the population of aggressive cats in this study was small (107 cats). A Spanish study of 336 cats referred to a behavioural clinic found that 17.2% involved a complaint relating to aggression toward people<ref name="Amat"/>. 43.1% of human directed aggression involved play, and 39.6% involved petting, with a significant overlap. With respect to aggression towards unfamiliar people, 70% of cases involved defensive and only 30% offensive aggression.

*Kittens should be reared in complex and stimulating environments including contact with many different people and other animals.

*They should experience a wide range of domestic noises and events so that these do not produce fear, anxiety or stress in the future.

*Immature animals should not be exposed to fearful or threatening situations or events.

*Physical punishment should NEVER be used in the training of cats or kittens.

'''Fear-related aggression is a motivational diagnosis and it can be associated with a variety of contexts'''. In some cases it may therefore be beneficial to add a contextual label as part of the diagnosis. For example, a cat that is aggressive when handled by the owner may be diagnosed as displaying "aggression associated with handling" that is fear motivated and a cat that is fearful of strangers and shows aggression to the owners when visitors are present may be diagnosed as a case of "redirected aggression", which is motivated by frustration of the fear response. In both cases "fear-related aggression" is the underlying motivational diagnosis and treatment of the cat’s underlying fear is crucial to the success of treatment but the contextual labels help the owner to understand when the behaviour may occur and to take steps to avoid it.

Fear-related aggression is a motivational diagnosis and it can be associated with a variety of contexts. In some cases it may therefore be beneficial to add a contextual label as part of the diagnosis. For example, a cat that is aggressive when handled by the owner may be diagnosed as displaying “aggression associated with handling” that is fear motivated and a cat that is fearful of strangers and shows aggression to the owners when visitors are present may be diagnosed as a case of “redirected aggression”, which is motivated by frustration of the fear response. In both cases “fear-related aggression” is the underlying motivational diagnosis and treatment of the cat’s underlying fear is crucial to the success of treatment but the contextual labels help the owner to understand when the behaviour may occur and to take steps to avoid it.  

 

==Treatment==

==Treatment==

It is unusual for cats to show fear-related aggression towards people outside the home environment unless cornered or handled [such as when at the veterinary clinic]. Fear-related aggression towards people in the home is treated using desensitisation and counter-conditioning procedures, often supported by pheromonotherapy.  

It is unusual for fear-related aggression towards people to be a problem outside the home environment (other than during a visit to the veterinary clinic). Fear-related aggression towards people in the home is treated using '''desensitisation and counter-conditioning procedures''', often supported by '''[[Pheromonotherapy - Cat|pheromonotherapy]]'''.  

The general method employed is:

'''The general method employed is:'''

*Identify the general class of target.

*Detail the characteristics of the target(s): age, height, hair colour, types of movement, clothing/appearance. List all of the features which affect the cat’s response so that they can be introduced during training.

*Grade the response to the target according to appearance or behaviour. Some cats are more aggressive towards men or children and may react differently according to their clothing, what the person is carrying or how they are moving. List all of the features which affect the cat’s response so that they can be introduced during training.

*Identify a way to present targets in a graded manner, starting with people with an appearance that is least likely to evoke any reaction. For example, some cats are more aggressive towards men or children and may react differently according to their clothing, what the person is carrying or how they are moving.

*Find a group of willing volunteers who will be able to act as stooges for training.

*Use volunteers who can be presented to the cat in a range of situations (and differing appearances) as part of training.

*Prepare the home environment with suitable escape places for the cat to use.

*Prepare the home environment with suitable escape places for the cat to use.

*Training is begun with the least fear and aggression evoking examples of the target class at a distance which does not trigger aggression.

*The cat may be kept on a harness and line for added safety.

*Training begins with people who are least likely to evoke a response, presented at a distance or in a manner that will not trigger aggression.

*The cat is provided with food rewards as a lure to leave the escape place and explore the environment with the target present.

*The cat may be kept on a harness and line for added safety, if there is a significant chance of an attack but the cat should be completely accustomed to the harness and leash before training with people starts.

*Over a number of sessions, that person is brought closer, making sure that, at no point, fear or aggressive arousal is elicited. They may also walk or run around faster, make noises, move about or carry items in a way that would previously have evoked more fear and aggression. These changes are introduced gradually, systematically and with sufficient distance to avoid aggression or fear.

*The cat is provided with food rewards as a lure to explore the environment with the target present.

*Over a number of sessions, that person is brought closer, making sure that, at no point, fear or aggressive arousal is elicited.

*Once the cat is not reacting to this, the person may stand up, move about, or make noises. These changes are introduced gradually, systematically and with sufficient distance from the cat to avoid eliciting aggression or fear.

*Training only continues with other progressively more fear eliciting persons as the cat ceases to respond to the less evocative ones.

*Training only continues with other progressively more fear eliciting persons as the cat ceases to respond to the less evocative ones.

By identifying the elements of a person’s appearance that the cat responds to, it is possible to do a lot of training with a limited number of volunteers, who can be dressed or disguised. Above all, in this example, it is important to note that ‘unfamiliarity’ is an element of the fear so the volunteers must not try to befriend the cat at any stage during training. Familiar individuals may only be used during training if they can be disguised or kept at a distance so that the cat cannot recognise them.

By identifying the elements of a person’s appearance that the cat responds to, it is possible to do a lot of training with a limited number of volunteers, who can be dressed up or disguised. Above all, in this example, it is important to note that ‘unfamiliarity’ is an element of the fear so the volunteers must not try to befriend the cat at any stage during training. Familiar individuals may only be used during training if they can be disguised or kept at a distance so that the cat does not recognise them.

====Clicker Training====

====Clicker Training====

In some instances clicker training may be an effective way of training cats to respond appropriately to the presence of people. First of all the cat is trained to associate the sound of a click with the delivery of a small food reward. This is achieved by clicking and then dropping a piece of food approximately 20-30 times until there is some sign of positive anticipation on the part of the cat.

In some instances clicker training may be an effective way of training cats to respond appropriately to the presence of people. The cat is trained to associate the sound of a click with the delivery of a small food reward. This is achieved by clicking and then dropping a piece of food approximately 20-30 times until there is some sign of positive anticipation on the part of the cat. Clicks are then only given when the cat carries out a specific behaviour, such as sitting. Once the cat is reliably sitting to get a click this behaviour can be ‘named’. Just as the cat is about to sit, the trainer says the command word that is intended to cue the behaviour: for example saying ‘sit’. After doing this a further 20-30 times most cats will be reliably trained to sit on cue (although often their responses are quite slow).

Clicks are then only delivered when the cat carries out a specific behaviour, such as sitting. Once the cat is reliably sitting to get a click this behaviour can be ‘named’. Just as the cat is about to sit, the trainer says the command word that is intended to cue the behaviour: for example saying ‘sit’. After doing this a further 20-30 times most cats will be reliably trained to sit on cue.

Cats that have already begun to associate the presence of visitors with the availability of food treats may be asked to sit and then repeatedly clicked and treated whist they stay calm. Alternatively, the cat may simply be clicked and rewarded repeatedly throughout the period while it remains calm whilst the person is present. The limitation to this kind of training is that the sound of the click may produce a startle response that increases fear and anxiety and cats can sometimes be more difficult to motivate through the provision of food than their canine counterparts.  

Cats that have already begun to associate the presence of visitors with the availability of food treats may be instructed to sit and then repeatedly clicked and treated whist they stay in a sitting position. Alternatively, the cat may be clicked and rewarded repeatedly throughout the period while it remains present with the person. The limitation to this kind of training is that the sound of the click may produce a startle response that increases fear and anxiety and cats can sometimes be very difficult to motivate with food rewards.  

====Pheromonotherapy====

====Pheromonotherapy====

<font color="red">this section may need adaptation once we have a page on pheromonotherapy</font>

'''Pheromonotherapy may be used to assist behavioural therapy'''. The [[Pheromonotherapy - Cat#F3|pheromone '''F3''' (Feliway)]] can be used to '''reduce general anxiety''' so that the home or training environment is less threatening and it has been particularly beneficial in cases of [[Feline Aggression Towards Other Cats in the Same Household|cat to cat aggression within the same household]]. [[Pheromonotherapy - Cat#F4|'''F4''' (Felifriend)]] is a '''social pheromone''' used by cats to identify familiar individuals and when applied to unfamiliar individuals (such as people) this can increase the cat’s tendency to approach, rather than escape or avoid, and show [[Feline Communication Behaviour#Affiliative Behaviour|affiliative behaviour]]. Combinations of pheromone therapies are especially helpful when the target of aggression is a member of the family or regular visitor to the household of a cat that has been recently re-homed. F4 may produce dissonant emotional states when the person or animal to whom F4 has been applied is an individual that the cat has past fearful experiences with.

Pheromonotherapy may be used to assist behavioural therapy. The pheromone F3 [Feliway, CEVA Animal Health] can be used to reduce general anxiety so that the home or training environment is less threatening and it has been particularly beneficial in cases of cat to cat aggression within the same household. F4 [Felifriend, CEVA Animal Sante] is a social pheromone used by cats to identify familiar individuals and when applied to unfamiliar individuals this can increase the cat’s tendency to approach and show affiliative behaviour. This can also be useful because it reduces escape responses. Combinations of pheromone therapies are especially helpful when the target of aggression is a member of the family or regular visitor to the household of a cat that has been recently re-homed. F4 may produce dissonant emotional states (which can induce a panic reaction) when the person or animal to whom F4 has been applied is already familiar to the cat from some aversive encounter and therefore invokes visual triggering of hostile responses. Further work in this area is essential but at the moment F4 should be used with care, applying it only to unfamiliar individuals, preferably from species with which the cat was socialised as a kitten.

In some cases of fear-aggression, the use of psychoactive medication may be useful to support behavioural therapy. '''[[Selegiline]]''' may be used to '''reduce apprehension'''. It is licensed for the treatment of behavioural problems with an emotional origin in dogs, but is not licensed for use in cats. The effect of this drug is to increase exploratory behaviour and confidence in fearful situations. It can also enhance the perception of reward, and thereby improve responses to counterconditioning procedures. However, by encouraging the animal to move closer to the target of the fear-related aggression there is an increased risk of injury if the person startles the cat by making a sudden noise or movement. This appears to be worst during the initiation of treatment (the first 4-6 weeks of medication).  

Serotonergic drugs such as [[Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (Clomipramine, Fluoxetine)|'''Fluoxetine''' and '''Clomipramine''']] may be used to '''reduce aggression where anxiety or frustration are underlying factors'''. They may also be used to reduce impulsiveness, thereby making attacks less sudden and unsignalled. However, with all psychoactive medications that alter anxiety and fear, there is a risk of disinhibition. Drugs can only be used safely and effectively after a thorough assessment of the case, and in combination with a well organised behavioural therapy plan and management to reduce risk of injury. No drug is currently licensed for the treatment of feline fear-related aggression, so informed consent must be obtained at the time of prescribing.

In some cases of fear-aggression, the use of psychoactive medication may be useful to support behavioural therapy. Selegiline may be used to reduce apprehension. The effect of this drug is to increase exploratory behaviour and confidence in fearful situations. It can also enhance the perception of reward, and thereby improve responses to counterconditioning procedures. However, by encouraging the animal to move closer to the target of the fear-related aggression there is an increased risk of injury if the person startles the cat by making a sudden noise or movement. This appears to be worst during the initiation of treatment [the first 4-6 weeks of medication].  

Serotonergic drugs such as Fluoxetine and Clomipramine may be used to reduce aggression where anxiety is a causative factor. However, in many cases of fear-related aggression anxiety over the consequences of launching an attack may be the only thing that prevents it. Reduction of anxiety in these cases can cause disinhibition of this anxiety, producing greater risk of attacks and injuries. Great care must therefore be taken when considering the use of any psychoactive drug; they can only be used safely and effectively after a thorough assessment of the case, and in combination with a well organised behavioural therapy plan and management to reduce risk of injury. No drug is currently licensed for the treatment of feline fear-related aggression, so informed consent must be obtained at the time of prescribing.

The owners expectations for the outcome of therapy should be part of the investigation, and unrealistic expectations will need to be managed. For example, in most cases previously fearful cats are only ever likely to become tolerant of people. Cats that wish to avoid contact with certain visitors should be allowed to do so, because this represents a safe and normal response to fear, which is far more desirable than an aggressive attack.

====Summary of Treatment of Fear-Related Aggression Towards People====

If clients can be satisfied with this kind of situation, then the prognosis is generally good. However, cats that have already inflicted injuries without any apparent provocation are potentially an ongoing danger. For example, those which hide and then attack without warning may be impossible to manage safely. This is why it is very important to differentiate motivations such as [[Misdirected Feline Predatory Behaviour Towards People|misdirected predatory play]] from genuine fear-related aggression, because the two often have different treatments and outcomes.

*Explain to the owner the signs of fearful arousal and other behaviours that will enable them to understand and predict the cat’s behaviour more effectively.

*Avoid uncontrolled exposure to fear-eliciting situations and events.

*Desensitise and counter condition the cat to these stimuli and events, starting with stimuli that evoke the least response.

*Desensitise and counter condition the cat to these contexts and stimuli.

==Prognosis==

==References==

If clients can be satisfied with this kind of situation, then the prognosis is generally good. However, cats that have already inflicted injuries without any deliberate provocation are potentially an ongoing danger. For example, cats that rush out from hiding places and attack without warning cannot be safely managed. This is why it is very important to differentiate motivations such as misdirected predatory play from genuine fear-related aggression, because the two often have different treatments and outcomes.

:[[Feline Aggression - Overview|Overview of Feline Aggression]]

|date=September 8, 2014

[[Category:Feline Aggression Towards People]]

[[Category:Feline Aggression Towards People]]

[[Category:Feline Problem Behaviour]]

[[Category:Feline Problem Behaviour]]