Changes

====Recognised Syndromes related to Calcium Deficiency====

====Recognised Syndromes related to Calcium Deficiency====

#'''Skeletal malformation''': Hazewinkel et al.<ref>Hazewinkel, HAW, van den Brom, WE, Vanꞌt Klooster, AT, Voorhout, G, Van Wees, A (1991). “Calcium metabolism in great Dane dogs fed diets with various calcium and phosphorus levels”. J. Nutr. 121 (suppl):S99-S106.</ref> described severe skeletal problems in Great Dane puppies fed diets with 0.55% calcium on a <span style="color:red">dry matter basis (DM) (hotline to definitions/glossary of terms)</span>. However Nap et al.<ref>Nap, R, Hazewinkel, HAW, van den Brom, WE (1993). “45Ca kinetics in growing miniature poodles challenged by four different dietary levels of calcium”. J. Nutr. 123:1826-1833.</ref> found no abnormalities in miniature poodle puppies (13-25 weeks) fed 0.33% calcium on DM. Nevertheless, in the same experiment<ref>Nap, R, Hazewinkel, HAW, van den Brom, WE (1993). “45Ca kinetics in growing miniature poodles challenged by four different dietary levels of calcium”. J. Nutr. 123:1826-1833.</ref>, NSHP was observed when a very low level of 0.05% calcium was fed. It is clear that giant, rapidly growing breeds are more sensitive to restrictions in dietary calcium.     

#'''Skeletal malformation''': Hazewinkel et al.<ref>Hazewinkel, HAW, van den Brom, WE, Vanꞌt Klooster, AT, Voorhout, G, Van Wees, A (1991). “Calcium metabolism in great Dane dogs fed diets with various calcium and phosphorus levels”. J. Nutr. 121 (suppl):S99-S106.</ref> described severe skeletal problems in Great Dane puppies fed diets with 0.55% calcium on a [[Nutrition Glossary#Dry Matter Basis|dry matter basis (DM)]]. However Nap et al.<ref>Nap, R, Hazewinkel, HAW, van den Brom, WE (1993). “45Ca kinetics in growing miniature poodles challenged by four different dietary levels of calcium”. J. Nutr. 123:1826-1833.</ref> found no abnormalities in miniature poodle puppies (13-25 weeks) fed 0.33% calcium on DM. Nevertheless, in the same experiment<ref>Nap, R, Hazewinkel, HAW, van den Brom, WE (1993). “45Ca kinetics in growing miniature poodles challenged by four different dietary levels of calcium”. J. Nutr. 123:1826-1833.</ref>, NSHP was observed when a very low level of 0.05% calcium was fed. It is clear that giant, rapidly growing breeds are more sensitive to restrictions in dietary calcium.     

#'''[[Hypocalcaemia#Eclampsia|Eclampsia]]''': Also called ''lactation tetany'' or ''milk fever'', eclampsia is a disease occurring during the later stages of pregnancy or soon after parturition (1-3 weeks postpartum). It is characterised by '''loss of consciousness, convulsions or both and is associated with severe hypocalcaemia''', although its aetiology is not completely understood. Proposed mechanisms include poor dietary intake, excessive calcium losses during lactation and abnormal parathyroid gland function<ref>Schenck, PA, Chew, DJ, Nagode, LA, Rosol, TJ. (2012). “Disorders of Calcium: Hypercalcemia and Hypocalcemia. In: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Disorders, 4th Edition. Dibartola SP (Editor). Sanders Elsevier St Louis, MO pp 120-194.</ref>. In addition, there may be a predisposition of this condition in toy breeds<ref>Austad, S, Bjerkas, E (1976). “Eclampsia in the bitch”. J. Small Anim. Pract. 17:793-798.</ref>. Clinical signs in dogs are typically not seen until total calcium concentration drops below 1.6 mmol/L [6.5 mg/dL] or iCa drops below 0.7 mmol/L [2.8 mg/dL].

#'''[[Hypocalcaemia#Eclampsia|Eclampsia]]''': Also called ''lactation tetany'' or ''milk fever'', eclampsia is a disease occurring during the later stages of pregnancy or soon after parturition (1-3 weeks postpartum). It is characterised by '''loss of consciousness, convulsions or both and is associated with severe hypocalcaemia''', although its aetiology is not completely understood. Proposed mechanisms include poor dietary intake, excessive calcium losses during lactation and abnormal parathyroid gland function<ref>Schenck, PA, Chew, DJ, Nagode, LA, Rosol, TJ. (2012). “Disorders of Calcium: Hypercalcemia and Hypocalcemia. In: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Disorders, 4th Edition. Dibartola SP (Editor). Sanders Elsevier St Louis, MO pp 120-194.</ref>. In addition, there may be a predisposition of this condition in toy breeds<ref>Austad, S, Bjerkas, E (1976). “Eclampsia in the bitch”. J. Small Anim. Pract. 17:793-798.</ref>. Clinical signs in dogs are typically not seen until total calcium concentration drops below 1.6 mmol/L [6.5 mg/dL] or iCa drops below 0.7 mmol/L [2.8 mg/dL].

==Toxicity==

==Toxicity==

===Dog:===

===Dog:===

Excess dietary calcium has caused bone abnormalities in growing dogs but this seems to be confined to puppies of large breeds. Hazewinkel ''et al.''<ref>Hazewinkel, HAW, Goedegebuure, S, Poulos, P, Wolvekamp, W (1985). “Influeneces of chronic calcium excess on the skeletal development of growing Great Danes”. J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assn. 21:377-391.</ref> found that Great Dane puppies fed a diet containing 3.3% calcium DM developed [[osteochondrosis]] and stunted growth. In contrast, when Nap et al.<ref>Nap, R, Hazewinkel, HAW, van den Brom, WE (1993). “45Ca kinetics in growing miniature poodles challenged by four different dietary levels of calcium”. J. Nutr. 123:1826-1833.</ref> fed a similar diet to miniature poodle puppies no significant skeletal problems were observed. These effects of excess calcium intake appear therefore to be confined mainly to puppies of large breeds. Nevertheless, Dobenecker et al.<ref>Dobenecker, B, Kasbeitzer, N, Flispach, S, Köstlin, R, Matis, U, Kienzle, E (2006). “Calcium excess causes subclinical changes of bone growth in beagles but not foxhound crossbred dogs, as measured by X-rays”. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 90:394-401.</ref> investigated the effects of calcium excess on beagles and foxhound crossbred puppies between 6 and 27 weeks of age. X-ray measurements of bone lengths and widths showed a growth-reducing influence only in beagles, i.e. the smaller breed, although there were no effects on general health or clinical parameters of skeletal health in either group. There are apparently no reports of adverse effects of calcium excess in adult dogs. A more general effect of very high calcium intakes is '''interference with the absorption of other minerals and trace elements''', such that deficiencies can occur at dietary levels that would otherwise be regarded as adequate. Such an effect has been observed in cats (see below).

Excess dietary calcium has caused bone abnormalities in growing dogs but this seems to be confined to puppies of large breeds. Hazewinkel ''et al.''<ref>Hazewinkel, HAW, Goedegebuure, S, Poulos, P, Wolvekamp, W (1985). “Influeneces of chronic calcium excess on the skeletal development of growing Great Danes”. J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assn. 21:377-391.</ref> found that Great Dane puppies fed a diet containing 3.3% calcium DM developed [[osteochondrosis]] and stunted growth. In contrast, when Nap ''et al.''<ref>Nap, R, Hazewinkel, HAW, van den Brom, WE (1993). “45Ca kinetics in growing miniature poodles challenged by four different dietary levels of calcium”. J. Nutr. 123:1826-1833.</ref> fed a similar diet to miniature poodle puppies no significant skeletal problems were observed. These effects of excess calcium intake appear therefore to be confined mainly to puppies of large breeds. Nevertheless, Dobenecker ''et al.''<ref>Dobenecker, B, Kasbeitzer, N, Flispach, S, Köstlin, R, Matis, U, Kienzle, E (2006). “Calcium excess causes subclinical changes of bone growth in beagles but not foxhound crossbred dogs, as measured by X-rays”. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 90:394-401.</ref> investigated the effects of calcium excess on beagles and foxhound crossbred puppies between 6 and 27 weeks of age. X-ray measurements of bone lengths and widths showed a growth-reducing influence only in beagles, i.e. the smaller breed, although there were no effects on general health or clinical parameters of skeletal health in either group. There are apparently no reports of adverse effects of calcium excess in adult dogs. A more general effect of very high calcium intakes is '''interference with the absorption of other minerals and trace elements''', such that deficiencies can occur at dietary levels that would otherwise be regarded as adequate. Such an effect has been observed in cats (see below).

===Cat:===

===Cat:===

There is some evidence of adverse effects of high dietary calcium in cats. Howard et al.<ref>Howard, KA, Rogers, QR, Morris, JG (1998). “Magnesium requirement in kittens is increased by high dietary calcium”. J. Nutr. 128 (suppl):2601S-2602S. </ref> found that kittens fed a dietary calcium level of 2.3% DM had depressed food intake, decreased growth and a higher requirement for magnesium. Nevertheless, these effects are not linked to severe skeletal abnormalities as seen in the giant dog breeds.

There is some evidence of adverse effects of high dietary calcium in cats. Howard ''et al.''<ref>Howard, KA, Rogers, QR, Morris, JG (1998). “Magnesium requirement in kittens is increased by high dietary calcium”. J. Nutr. 128 (suppl):2601S-2602S. </ref> found that kittens fed a dietary calcium level of 2.3% DM had depressed food intake, decreased growth and a higher requirement for magnesium. Nevertheless, these effects are not linked to severe skeletal abnormalities as seen in the giant dog breeds.

==Dietary Sources==

==Dietary Sources==

==References==

==References==

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<references/>

[[Category:Minerals in Nutrition]]

[[Category:Minerals in Nutrition]]