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[[Image:Boid_inclusion_body_dis._rbc_inclusions.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Inclusion bodies''' ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]

[[Image:Boid_inclusion_body_dis._rbc_inclusions.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Inclusion bodies''' © RVC]]

==Species predisposition==

==Species predisposition==

Inclusion body disease is seen in [[Boidae]]. In the past, the most commonly affected snakes were the [[Burmese Python|Burmese pythons]] but the disease is now most often seen in [[Boa constrictor|Boa constrictors]]. It appears to be relatively uncommon in [[Royal Python|Royal pythons]] and has not been reported in [[Rosy boa|Rosy boas]]. The occurrence of the disease in non-boids cannot be ruled out since typical signs and lesions have been reported in a [[Kingsnake|Kingsnake]]. IBD is primarily seen in adult snakes, however all age groups should be considered susceptible.  Young snakes tend to develop an acute infection with a mortality rate approaching 100%.  Infected adult snakes, especially boa constrictors, often experience the disease in a more chronic and debilitating form. 

Inclusion body disease is seen in Boidae. Previously the most commonly affected species was Burmese pythons but the disease is now most often seen in boa constrictors. It appears to be relatively uncommon in royal pythons and has not been reported in rosy boas. The occurrence of the disease in non-boids cannot be ruled out since typical signs and lesions have been reported in a kingsnake. IBD is primarily seen in adult snakes, however all age groups should be considered susceptible.

 

Inclusion body disease (IBD) is a worldwide disease of [[Boidae]] and is named for the characteristic intracytoplasmic inclusions seen in the cells of affected snakes. The causative agent of has not been identified.  A Retroviridae-like virus was initially incriminated, but newer data points to a highly divergent group of non-mammalian arenaviruses, collectively referred to as reptarenaviruses.

==Examination==

==Examination==

Classically pythons developed acute CNS signs and boas presented with regurgitation. In fact clinical signs are very variable and may related to secondary bacterial infections in immunosuppressed boids. Common clinical signs include lethargy, anorexia, weight loss or lack of weight gain, pale oral mucous membranes, CNS problems (incoordination, disorientation, slow to loss of righting reflexes, head tremors, opisthotonous, paresis to paralysis), regurgitation (partially digested possibly mucous-covered food food about one week post-prandial), stomatitis, diarrhoea, pneumonia, dermatitis and neoplasia.

Classically [[Pythoninae|pythons]] developed acute CNS signs and boas presented with regurgitation. In fact clinical signs are very variable among species and individuals and may related to secondary bacterial infections in immunosuppressed boids.  

 

Common clinical signs include the following:

 

* Weight loss

* Lack of weight gain

* Pale oral mucous membranes

* CNS problems including:

** Loss of righting reflexes

** Head tremors

** Paresis to paralysis

* Regurgitation (partially digested possibly mucous-covered food food about one week post-prandial), [[Lizard and Snake Ulcerative Stomatitis|stomatitis]], diarrhoea, pneumonia, dermatitis and neoplasia.

 

 

==Diagnosis==

==Diagnosis==

[[Image:BOID_INCLUS._BODY_DIS._GASTRIC_MUCOSAL_INCLUSIONS.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Gastric mucosal inclusions''' ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]

[[Image:BOID_INCLUS._BODY_DIS._GASTRIC_MUCOSAL_INCLUSIONS.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Gastric mucosal inclusions'''© RVC]]

Since IBD presents with a variety of signs, any sick boid without an obvious aetiology should be suspected of IBD. Especially consider those with regurgitation, CNS signs and bacterial infections. A thorough physical examination may rule our other causes. Currently there is no serologic assay available for determining exposure. Diagnostic aids include the following.

Since IBD presents with a variety of signs, any sick boid without an obvious aetiology should be suspected of IBD. Especially consider those with regurgitation, CNS signs and bacterial infections. A thorough [[Snake Physical Examination|physical examination]] may rule our other causes. Currently there is no serologic assay available for determining exposure. Diagnostic aids include the following:

===Blood===

===Blood===

Blood examination may be helpful. Haematology may show a leukocytosis with a lymphocytosis. The white blood cell count is variable, ranging from normal (immune system depression) to as high as 100,000. The leucocytes may show toxic changes. Smears are observed for the pres¬ence of inclusion bodies. Typically 1% of cells have the inclusion bodies so it is worthwhile doing a buffy coat smear. Biochemistry may show changes in liver parameters.

Blood sample examination may be helpful. [[Lizard and Snake Haematology|Haematology]] may show a leukocytosis with a lymphocytosis. The white blood cell count is variable, ranging from normal (immune system depression) to as high as 100,000. The leucocytes may show toxic changes. Smears are observed for the presence of inclusion bodies. Typically 1% of cells have the inclusion bodies so it is worthwhile doing a buffy coat smear. Biochemistry may show changes in liver parameters.

 

===Biopsy and histology===

===Biopsy and histology===

Tissues for biopsy include oesophageal tonsils, liver, kidney and gastric mucosa. The presence of cytoplasmic inclusion bodies on histology is diagnostic for IBD. Sometimes very few inclusions are seen so absence of inclusions does not rule out the disease. For antemortem diagnosis biopsies may have be repeated several times to find inclusions. Characteristic histopathology may be seen in several tissues.

Tissues for biopsy include oesophageal tonsils, liver, kidney and gastric mucosa. The presence of cytoplasmic inclusion bodies on histology is diagnostic for IBD. Sometimes very few inclusions are seen so absence of inclusions does not rule out the disease. For antemortem diagnosis biopsies may have be repeated several times to find inclusions. Characteristic histopathology may be seen in several tissues.

   

   

===Necropsy===

===Necropsy===

Necropsy shows changes associated with secondary bacterial infections. On histology, multiple tissues have been reported to contain cells with inclusions.

[[Snake Necropsy|Necropsy]] shows changes associated with secondary bacterial infections. On histology, multiple tissues have been reported to contain cells with inclusions.

 

 

==Therapy==

==Therapy==

There is no known treatment. Euthanasia is recommended.

There is no known treatment. Euthanasia is recommended.

==Prevention==

==Prevention==

A sound preventive medicine programme is the protection. All new snakes should be quarantined for a minimum of 90 days before introduction to others. For larger collections a quarantine of 6 months may be more appropriate. The exact route of transmission is unknown so hygiene and mite control are essential. Finally all infected snakes should be euthanased.

A sound preventive medicine programme is the protection. All new snakes should be quarantined for a minimum of 90 days before introduction to others. For larger collections a [[Lizard and Snake Quarantine|quarantine]] of 6 months may be more appropriate. The exact route of transmission is unknown so [[Lizard and Snake Day to Day Practice|hygiene]] and [[Snake Mites|mite]] control are essential. Finally all infected snakes should be [[Lizard and Snake Euthanasia|euthanased]].

 

 

|full text = [http://www.cabi.org/cabdirect/FullTextPDF/2005/20053197443.pdf '''Methods for diagnosing inclusion body disease in snakes.''' Garner, M. M.; Eastern States Veterinary Association, Gainesville, USA, Small animal and exotics. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference, Volume 19, Orlando, Florida, USA, 8-12 January, 2005, 2005, pp 1283-1284, 8 ref.]

 

[[Category:Snake Viral Diseases]]

[[Category:Snake Viral Diseases]]