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==Introduction==

==Introduction==

The '''Peripheral Nervous System''' is made up of cranial and spinal nerves. Spinal nerves are named after the vertebra immediately above it, except for '''cervical vertebra'''. There are '''7''' cervical vertebrae and '''8''' cervical spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system can be divided into the '''somatic nervous system''' and '''autonomic nervous system'''. The somatic nervous system co-ordinates body movements and also receives external stimuli. It basically regulates activities that are under conscious control. The autonomic nervous system is then split into the '''sympathetic nervous system''', '''parasympathetic nervous system''', and enteric division. The sympathetic nervous system is the '''‘fight or flight’''' system which comes into role when an animal is under threat, it's main neurotransmitter is adrenaline. The parasympathetic nervous system is the '''‘rest and digest’''' system which is responsible for [[Alimentary System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|digestion]]. It’s main neurotransmitter is '''acetylcholine'''.

The '''Peripheral Nervous System''' is made up of cranial and spinal nerves. Spinal nerves are named after the vertebra immediately above it, except for '''cervical vertebra'''. There are '''7''' cervical vertebrae and '''8''' cervical spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system can be divided into the '''somatic nervous system''' and '''autonomic nervous system'''. The somatic nervous system co-ordinates body movements and also receives external stimuli. It basically regulates activities that are under conscious control. The autonomic nervous system is then split into the '''sympathetic nervous system''', '''parasympathetic nervous system''', and enteric division. The sympathetic nervous system is the '''‘fight or flight’''' system which comes into role when an animal is under threat, its main neurotransmitter is adrenaline. The parasympathetic nervous system is the '''‘rest and digest’''' system which is responsible for digestion. Its main neurotransmitter is '''acetylcholine'''.

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==Structure==

==Structure==

[[Image:WIKIVETperipheralnervestructure.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Peripheral Nerve Structure. Sophie Stenner, RVC 2008]]

[[Image:WIKIVETperipheralnervestructure.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Peripheral Nerve Structure. Sophie Stenner, RVC 2008]]

Nerve fibres reside in a connective tissue matrix called the '''endoneurium''' and are gathered together into bundles or fascicles defined by a second connective tissue layer called the '''perineurium'''. Groups of fascicles are then gathered together in a third connective tissue layer called the '''epineurium'''. Thus, peripheral nerves have a '''three-tiered hierarchical arrangement of connective tissue'''. '''Renaut bodies''' are loose, cigar-shaped whorls of extracellular matrix within fascicles. They are common in [[Equine Alimentary System  - Anatomy & Physiology|equine]] nerves and may also occur in human and rat peripheral nerves at points of stress or compression.

Nerve fibres reside in a connective tissue matrix called the '''endoneurium''' and are gathered together into bundles or fascicles defined by a second connective tissue layer called the '''perineurium'''. Groups of fascicles are then gathered together in a third connective tissue layer called the '''epineurium'''. Thus, peripheral nerves have a '''three-tiered hierarchical arrangement of connective tissue'''. '''Renaut bodies''' are loose, cigar-shaped whorls of extracellular matrix within fascicles. They are common in equine nerves and may also occur in human and rat peripheral nerves at points of stress or compression.

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==Nerve Fibre==

==Nerve Fibre==

The nerve fibre consists of the impulse-carrying axon, which is surrounded by an ensheathing cell, the [[#The Schwann cell|Schwann cell]], which in turn is surrounded by an acellular basal lamina that is continuous along the length of the nerve. Nerve fibres come in various discrete diameter groups, which are reflected in their conduction velocities. The larger the diameter the more rapid the rate of impulse conduction. Particular targets or receptors are associated with axons of a particular diameter. Axons connected to muscles spindles have a large diameter (20 um) and conduct at 120 m/s whilst the smallest myelinated fibres are about 1um and conduct at around 6 m/s. The smallest fibres of all are the unmyelinated fibres (the high-threshold sensory afferents, or C-fibres, and post-ganglionic autonomies) and have a diameter of between 1 and 0.1 um. These fibres do not conduct by saltatory conduction and have very slow conduction rates of around 0.5 m/s.

The nerve fibre consists of the impulse-carrying axon, which is surrounded by an ensheathing cell, the [[#The Schwann cell|Schwann cell]], which in turn is surrounded by an acellular basal lamina that is continuous along the length of the nerve. Nerve fibres come in various discrete diameter groups, which are reflected in their conduction velocities. The larger the diameter the more rapid the rate of impulse conduction. Particular targets or receptors are associated with axons of a particular diameter. Axons connected to muscles spindles have a large diameter (20 µm) and conduct at 120 m/s whilst the smallest myelinated fibres are about 1µm and conduct at around 6 m/s. The smallest fibres of all are the unmyelinated fibres (the high-threshold sensory afferents, or C-fibres, and post-ganglionic autonomies) and have a diameter of between 1 and 0.1 µm. These fibres do not conduct by saltatory conduction and have very slow conduction rates of around 0.5 m/s.

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===The Axon===

===The Axon===

Axons have an outer membrane called the '''axolemma''' and within this there is the '''axoplasm''' which is continuous with the cytoplasm of the neuron. There are no ribosomes, either free or attached to endoplasmic reticulum in axons and therefore, no protein synthesis.  

Axons have an outer membrane called the '''axolemma''' and within this there is the '''axoplasm''' which is continuous with the cytoplasm of the [[Neurons - Anatomy & Physiology|neuron]]. There are no ribosomes, either free or attached to endoplasmic reticulum in axons and therefore, no protein synthesis.  

Protein synthesis takes place within the cell body and some dendrites and all protein replacement required for the maintenance of the axon depends on proteins being imported from the cell body. A critical feature of the axon is its '''cytoskeleton''', which consists of two key elements; '''neurofilaments''' and '''microtubules'''. '''Neurofilaments''' are intermediate filaments of about 10 nm diameter, and belong to the same class as other cytoskeletal proteins such as keratin, desmin, vimentin, or GFAP of astrocytes.  Neurofilaments are formed from a triplet of polypeptide subunits of heavy (~ 200 kD), medium (~ 150 kD) and low (~ 60 kD) molecular weights. Typically, these subunits are heavily phosphorylated and are more numerous than microtubules, especially in large diameter axons, having a pivotal role in determining axon diameter. They are formed in the cell body, transported down the axon by axoplasmic transport and degraded in the terminals by Ca²⁺ activated proteases. In other words, there is a constant turnover of neurofllament within the healthy axon. '''Microtubules''' within axons are similar to microtubules elsewhere, consisting of polymerised dimers of alpha and beta tubulin arranged as a hollow tube of about 28 nm. They are relatively abundant in smaller diameter axons, and are also synthesised in the cell body. An important component of the cytoskeleton are the '''microtubule associated proteins''' or MAP's and the tau proteins. These proteins are important in microtubule assembly and stability. Different classes of MAP's occur in the dendrites and the axons, and to some extent account for the different ultrastructural features that distinguish these two types of neuronal process. They form cross links between adjacent microtubules but also connect to neurofilaments and actin microfilaments, implying complex interactions between the various components of the axon skeleton.

Protein synthesis takes place within the cell body and some dendrites and all protein replacement required for the maintenance of the axon depends on proteins being imported from the cell body. A critical feature of the axon is its '''cytoskeleton''', which consists of two key elements; '''neurofilaments''' and '''microtubules'''. '''Neurofilaments''' are intermediate filaments of about 10 nm diameter, and belong to the same class as other cytoskeletal proteins such as keratin, desmin, vimentin, or GFAP of astrocytes.  Neurofilaments are formed from a triplet of polypeptide subunits of heavy (~ 200 kD), medium (~ 150 kD) and low (~ 60 kD) molecular weights. Typically, these subunits are heavily phosphorylated and are more numerous than microtubules, especially in large diameter axons, having a pivotal role in determining axon diameter. They are formed in the cell body, transported down the axon by axoplasmic transport and degraded in the terminals by Ca²⁺ activated proteases. In other words, there is a constant turnover of neurofilament within the healthy axon. '''Microtubules''' within axons are similar to microtubules elsewhere, consisting of polymerised dimers of alpha and beta tubulin arranged as a hollow tube of about 28 nm. They are relatively abundant in smaller diameter axons, and are also synthesised in the cell body. An important component of the cytoskeleton are the '''microtubule associated proteins''' or MAP's and the tau proteins. These proteins are important in microtubule assembly and stability. Different classes of MAP's occur in the dendrites and the axons, and to some extent account for the different ultrastructural features that distinguish these two types of neuronal process. They form cross links between adjacent microtubules but also connect to neurofilaments and actin microfilaments, implying complex interactions between the various components of the axon skeleton.

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===Anterograde Transport===

===Anterograde Transport===

Anterograde transport moves substances from the cell body to the axon. Two basic forms of anterograde transport can be recognised: '''fast anterograde transport''' and '''slow anterograde transport'''. Fast anterograde transport allows movement of all membranous organelles such as synaptic vesicles and occurs at a rate of around 400mm/day (recent evidence suggests that there are many form of fast anterograde transport, mediated by different kinesins). Fast anterograde transport depends critically on oxidative metabolism, and is, in fact independent of the cell body. Microtubules act as a static track along which the organelles can move, driven by the ATPase '''kinesin''' which acts as a "motor" molecule. Fast anterograde transport is independent of the cell body. Anything which interfers with with energy supply or cytoskeleton necessary for fast anterograde transport has profound effects on the health of the axon. Agents such as colchicine or vincristine block microtubule assembly, disrupting fast anterograde transport.'''Slow anterograde transport''' deals with cytoskeletal elements and large soluble proteins. Slow anterograde transport can be further sub-divided into a slow component, which occurs at about 2mm/day (neurofilament, rubulin, actin) and a fast component, which occurs at around 4 mm/day, transporting all other proteins (eg myosin, clathrin).

Anterograde transport moves substances from the cell body to the axon. Two basic forms of anterograde transport can be recognised: '''fast anterograde transport''' and '''slow anterograde transport'''. Fast anterograde transport allows movement of all membranous organelles such as synaptic vesicles and occurs at a rate of around 400mm/day (recent evidence suggests that there are many forms of fast anterograde transport, mediated by different kinesins). Fast anterograde transport depends critically on oxidative metabolism, and is, in fact independent of the cell body. Microtubules act as a static track along which the organelles can move, driven by the ATPase '''kinesin''' which acts as a "motor" molecule. Fast anterograde transport is independent of the cell body. Anything which interferes with energy supply or cytoskeleton necessary for fast anterograde transport has profound effects on the health of the axon. Agents such as colchicine or vincristine block microtubule assembly, disrupting fast anterograde transport. '''Slow anterograde transport''' deals with cytoskeletal elements and large soluble proteins. Slow anterograde transport can be further sub-divided into a slow component, which occurs at about 2mm/day (neurofilament, rubulin, actin) and a fast component, which occurs at around 4 mm/day, transporting all other proteins (eg myosin, clathrin).

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==Blood Supply==

==Blood Supply==

The epineurium is penetrated by the vascular supply to the nerve and this blood supply is known as the '''vasa nervorum'''. Only capillaries occur within the endoneurial compartment. The capillaries of the endoneurium are joined by tight junctions and provide a barrier to large macromolecules. This forms the basis of the blood-nerve barrier (BNB), which has similarities to the [[Blood Brain Barrier - Anatomy & Physiology|blood-brain barrier]] of the CNS. The BNB appears to be relatively weak in the sensory ganglia because fenestrations occur between endothelial cells in this location. Sensory ganglia are therefore more vulnerable to blood-borne agents.  A further "barrier" is provided by the perineurium which consists of sheets of flattened cells, connected by tight junctions and covered on both sides by a basal lamina.The only route across this structure is trans- rather than inter-cellular.

The epineurium is penetrated by the vascular supply to the nerve and this blood supply is known as the '''vasa nervorum'''. Only capillaries occur within the endoneurial compartment. The capillaries of the endoneurium are joined by tight junctions and provide a barrier to large macromolecules. This forms the basis of the blood-nerve barrier (BNB), which has similarities to the [[Blood Brain Barrier - Anatomy & Physiology|blood-brain barrier]] of the CNS. The BNB appears to be relatively weak in the sensory ganglia because fenestrations occur between endothelial cells in this location. Sensory ganglia are therefore more vulnerable to blood-borne agents.  A further "barrier" is provided by the perineurium which consists of sheets of flattened cells, connected by tight junctions and covered on both sides by a basal lamina. The only route across this structure is trans- rather than inter-cellular.

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[[Category:Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology]][[Category:To Do - Review]]

[[Category:Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology]][[Category:A&P Done]]