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− | {{toplink | + | ==Introduction== |
− | |backcolour = E0EEEE | + | |
− | |linkpage = Nervous System - Pathology | + | * '''Seizures''' are paroxysmal changes in cerebral cortex electrical activity that start abruptly, end suddenly and have a tendency to recur. |
− | |linktext =Nervous System | + | * '''Epilepsy''' is the occurence of recurrent seizures. |
− | |maplink = Nervous System (Content Map) - Pathology
| + | |
− | |pagetype =Pathology | + | ==Pathophysiology== |
| + | |
| + | * Seizures occur when there is imbalance between exitatory and inhibitory processes. This may be due to : |
| + | ** Inadequate neuronal inhibition. |
| + | *** Major inhibitory neurotransmitters include GABA and glycine. |
| + | ** Excessive neuronal excitation. |
| + | *** Major excitatory neurotransmitters include aspartate and glutamate. |
| + | |
| + | ===Proposed Mechanisms=== |
| + | |
| + | * Defective feed-forward inhibition or feed-back initiation of inhibitory neurons in cortical circuits. |
| + | ** Recurrent excitatory collaterals may be formed. |
| + | * Changes in membrane properties of neurons. |
| + | ** These may include changes at: |
| + | *** Potassium, sodium, chloride and calcium ion channels |
| + | *** GABA receptors |
| + | *** Nicotinic acetyl choline receptors |
| + | *** NMDA receptors |
| + | **** Activation. |
| + | * Changes in the ionic microenvironment. |
| + | |
| + | ===Seizure Development=== |
| + | |
| + | # At the onset of a seizure, abnormal neurons undergo prolonged depolarisations. |
| + | #* These depolarisations are associated with the rapid firing of repeated action potentials. |
| + | # Depolarisation of abnormal neurons recruits adjacent neurons with which they are connected. |
| + | # The electrical discharges of the large number of neurons involved become linked together. |
| + | # A storm of electrical activity results, causing a clinical seizure. |
| + | # Seizures may then spread: |
| + | #* To adjacent areas of the brain. |
| + | #* Through established anatomic pathways to other distant areas. |
| + | |
| + | ==Nomenclature== |
| + | |
| + | * '''Status epilepticus''' is the term used to describe |
| + | ** A seizure lasting longer than 5 minutes, or |
| + | ** A collection of discrete seizures without full recovery of consciousness. |
| + | * '''Cluster seizures''' occur when 2 or more seizures are experienced in a brief periods, but the patient regains consciousness between them. |
| + | * Three classes of seizures are recognised: |
| + | *# Generalised seizures |
| + | *# Focal seizures |
| + | *# Focal generalising seizures |
| + | |
| + | ===Generalised Seizures=== |
| + | |
| + | * Generalised seizures may be: |
| + | ** Idiopathic |
| + | ** Symptomatic |
| + | *** Due to intracranial disease e.g. neoplasia, storage diseases etc. |
| + | ** Cryptogenic |
| + | *** There is probably an underlying cause but it cannot be identified by the diagnostic tests available. |
| + | ** Reactive |
| + | *** Due to some extracranial disorder, for example a toxin or metabolic disorder. |
| + | |
| + | ====Clinical Signs==== |
| + | |
| + | * Initial clinical signs show involvement of both cerebral hemispheres. |
| + | * Generalised seizures result in: |
| + | ** Change in consciousness |
| + | ** Motor activity |
| + | *** Tonic-clonic seizures are most common in dogs and cats. |
| + | ** Autonomic signs |
| + | * The body's energy utilisation can increase to around 250% of the normal value during a generalised seizure. |
| + | |
| + | ====Stages==== |
| + | |
| + | # Prodromal Phase |
| + | #* The animal experiences an indication of a forthcoming seizure. |
| + | #* This occurs hours to days before the event itself. |
| + | # Aural Phase |
| + | #* This is the very start of the seizure. |
| + | #* Behaviour changes may be apparent. |
| + | # Ictal Phase |
| + | #* The seizure "proper". |
| + | # Postictal phase |
| + | #* Consists of transient neurological and behavious changes, which can last from hours to days. |
| + | |
| + | ====[[Idiopathic Epilepsy]]==== |
| + | |
| + | ====Acquired Generalisd Seizures==== |
| + | |
| + | * Other general seizures may be acquired. |
| + | * Seizures can occur at any age, but generally occur in animals younger than 2 years and older than 5 years. |
| + | * Causes may include: |
| + | ** Intracranial disease |
| + | *** Neoplasia |
| + | *** Trauma |
| + | *** Infection |
| + | *** Inflammation |
| + | ** Extracranial disease (also known as "reactive epilpsy"). |
| + | *** Electolyte disorders |
| + | *** Metabolic disorders |
| + | *** Toxicity |
| + | |
| + | ===Focal Seizures=== |
| + | |
| + | * Almost always an acquired disease. |
| + | * Active diseases often progress to become more general. |
| + | ** Cause generalised seizures. |
| + | |
| + | ===Simple Focal Seizures=== |
| + | |
| + | * Onset occurs in a limited area of one cerebral hemisphere. |
| + | * No impairment of consciousness. |
| + | |
| + | === Complex Focal Seizures=== |
| + | |
| + | * Arise in a single brain region, but cause impaired consciousness. |
| + | |
| + | ==Causes of Acquired Seizures== |
| + | |
| + | {| border="3" cellpadding="8" |
| + | !width="150"|'''<u>Cause</u>''' |
| + | !width="400"|'''<u>Examples</u>''' |
| + | |
| + | |- |
| + | |Neoplasia |
| + | |Primary or metastatic |
| + | |- |
| + | |Inflammatory |
| + | |Distemper, FIP, FeLV/FIV, rabies, cryptococcosis (cats), toxoplasmosis |
| + | |- |
| + | |Traumatic |
| + | |Immediate or delayed |
| + | |- |
| + | |Vascular |
| + | |Feline ischaemic encephalopathy, thromboembolism, hypertenstion |
| + | |- |
| + | |Anomalous |
| + | |Hydrocephalus |
| + | |- |
| + | |Metabolic |
| + | |Hepatic encephalopathy, uraemia, hyperparathyroidism, hypolycaemia, hyperkalaemia, hypocalcaemia, hypoxia, acid-base disorders, hyperthermia |
| + | |- |
| + | |Toxic |
| + | |Lead, organophosphates, metaldehyde, strychnine |
| + | |} |
| + | [[File:Causes of Epilepsy in cats and dogs older than 6 years.pdf|alt=|thumb|Causes of Seizures in Cats and Dogs older than 6 Years]] |
| + | |
| + | ==Investigation of Seizures== |
| + | |
| + | * It must first be determined whether seizure activity is in fact a seizure, rather than a non-epileptic paroxysmal event, for example: |
| + | ** Syncope |
| + | ** Exercise-induced weakness |
| + | ** Obsessive-compulsive behaviour |
| + | ** Narcolepsy |
| + | * Idiopathic epilepsy may be differentiated from secondary or reactive seizures by considering: |
| + | ** Age of onset |
| + | ** Breed disposition |
| + | ** Partial seizures or asymmetrical post-ictal signs |
| + | *** These suggest a discrete lesion. |
| + | ** Older animals (>5 years) may be more likely to have an acquired aetiology. |
| + | ** Younger animals (<6 months) may be more likely to have toxic or metabolic causes. |
| + | * Useful tests include: |
| + | ** Metabolic screening |
| + | ** Haematology |
| + | ** Serum biochemistry |
| + | ** Urinalysis |
| + | ** Serology. |
| + | ** Bile acid stimulation test |
| + | ** Serum lead |
| + | ** MRI and CT scanning, and CSF analysis, help rule out cancer. |
| + | <br><br> |
| + | |
| + | {{Template:Learning |
| + | |podcasts = [[Seizures podcast|RVC clinical podcast about seizures]]<br> |
| }} | | }} |
− | <br>
| + | |
| + | [[Category:Central Nervous System - Pathology]] |