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===Femur===

===Femur===

The femur is the strongest of the long bones and provides the origin and attachment for many muscles and tendons. This means that it is charcacteristically modelled for each species. Despite this it can be divided into three basic parts:

The femur is the strongest of the long bones and provides the origin and attachment for many muscles and tendons. This means that it is characteristically modelled for each species. Despite this it can be divided into three basic parts:

1. '''''The Femoral Head'''''

1. '''''The Femoral Head'''''

 

:The head is offset from the main shaft of the femur, points in a medial direction and articulates with the acetabulum. It has a hemispherical articular surface with an associated '''notch''', ''fovea capitis'', which provides attachment for the '''intracapsular ligament'''. Lateral to the head is the '''greater trochanter'''. This process provides attachment to the gluteal muscles. The '''trochantic fossa''' separates the greater trochanter and the neck of the femur. It provides a site of insertion for the deep hip muscles. The '''lesser trochanter''' is a smaller process on the medial side that provides a site of attachment for the iliopsoas.

The head is offset from the main shaft of the femur, points in a medial direction and articulates with the acetabulum. It has a hemispherical articular surface with an associated '''notch''', ''fovea capitis'', which provides attachment for the '''intracapsular ligament'''. Lateral to the head is the '''greater trochanter'''. This process provides attachment to the gluteal muscles. The '''trochantic fossa''' seperates the greater trochanter and the neck of the femur. It provides a site of insertion for the deep hip muscles. The '''lesser trochanter''' is a smaller process on the medial side that provides a site of attachment for the iliopsoas.

2. '''''Femoral Shaft'''''

2. '''''Femoral Shaft'''''

 

:The caudal surface is roughened proximally and is framed by the '''medial and lateral lips'''. These lips extend distally and enclose the '''popliteal surface'''. They also provide attachment for the adductor muscles.

The caudal surface is roughened proximally and is framed by the '''medial and lateral lips'''. These lips extend distally and enclose the '''popliteal surface'''. They also provide attachment for the adductor muscles.

3. '''''Distal Extremity'''''

3. '''''Distal Extremity'''''

 

:This consists of the '''medial and lateral condyles''' caudally and a trochlea cranially. The condyles articulate with the tibia and menisci to form the '''femorotibial joint'''. The '''intercondylar fossa''' lies between the condyles and is separated from the popliteal surface by the '''intercondylar line'''. Both condyles are roughened on their abaxial surfaces, providing attachment for the collateral ligaments of the stifle joint. The '''extensor fossa''' is one of a pair of depressions on the lateral condyle. It is the more cranial of the two and forms an attachment point for the long digital extensor and third perineal muscle. The caudal depression gives origin to the popliteal muscle. On the caudal aspect of each condyle are facets for the articulation with the '''fabellae'''. These are sesamoid bones that are embedded in the tendinous insertion of the '''gastrocnemius'''. The '''trochlea''' is made up of two ridges and a groove that articulates with the '''patella''' to form the '''femoropatellar joint'''.

This consists of the '''medial and lateral condyles''' caudally and a trochlea cranially. The condyles articulate with the tibia and menisci to form the '''femorotibial joint'''. The '''intercondylar fossa''' lies between the condyles and is seperated from the polpiteal surface by the '''intercondylar line'''. Both condyles are roughened on their abaxial surfaces, providing attachment for the collateral ligaments of the stifle joint. The '''extensor fossa''' is one of a pair of depressions on the lateral condyle. It is the more cranial of the two and forms an attachment point for the long digital extensor and third perineal muscle. The caudal depression gives origin to the popliteal. On the caudal aspect of each condyle are facets for the articulation with the '''fabellae'''. These are sesamoid bones that are embedded in the tendinous insertion of the '''gastrocnemius'''. The '''trochlea''' is made up of two ridges and a groove that articulates with the '''patella''' to form the '''femeropatellar joint'''.

Click here for the [[Ossification Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Femur|ossification centers of the femur]].

Click here for the [[Ossification Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Femur|ossification centers of the femur]].

This is a '''synovial joint''' that is formed by the articulations between the auricular surfaces of the ilial wing and the sacrum. It has a joint capsule that tightly surrounds the joint and is strengthened by the '''ventral sacroiliac ligaments'''. The sacroiliac ligaments are:

This is a '''synovial joint''' that is formed by the articulations between the auricular surfaces of the ilial wing and the sacrum. It has a joint capsule that tightly surrounds the joint and is strengthened by the '''ventral sacroiliac ligaments'''. The sacroiliac ligaments are:

1. '''Interosseous sacroiliac ligaments''' - these lie between the iliac tuberosity and the dorsal aspect of the sacral wing.

#'''Interosseous sacroiliac ligaments''' - these lie between the iliac tuberosity and the dorsal aspect of the sacral wing.

 

#'''Dorsal Sacroiliac ligaments''' - this is made up of two branches. The short branch connects the sacral tuber to either the mammilary processes (carnivores and pigs)or to the spinous processes (ruminants and horses) of the sacrum. The long branch connects the sacral tuber to the lateral aspect of the sacrum.

2. '''Dorsal Sacroiliac ligaments''' - this is made up of two branches. The short branch connects the sacral tuber to either the mammilary processes (carnivores and pigs)or to the spinous processes (ruminants and horses) of the sacrum. The long branch connects the sacral tuber to the lateral aspect of the sacrum.

#The '''sacrotuberous ligament''' - is highly variable among species.

 

3. The '''sacrotuberous ligament''' - is highly variable among species.

===Coxafemoral/Hip Joint===

===Coxafemoral/Hip Joint===

This is a spheroidal joint formed by the femoral head and the '''acetabulum'''. The '''acetabulum''' is formed by all three pelvic bones and an additional '''small acetabular bone''' in carnivores. The craniolateral part is made by the ilium, the caudolateral part by the ischium and the medial part by the pubis. The cavity of the acetabulum consists of a peripheral '''articular lunate surface''' and the non-articular '''acetabular fossa''' in it's centre. The lunate surface is crescent shaped and has on its medial aspect the '''acetabular notch'''. Cattle also have a '''cranioventral notch ''' present. The '''acetabular lip''' is a band of fibrocartilage that lies on the acetabular rim, thus deepening the acetabulum. The joint capsule is large and attaches to the acetabular lip.

This is a spheroidal joint formed by the femoral head and the '''acetabulum'''. The '''acetabulum''' is formed by all three pelvic bones and an additional '''small acetabular bone''' in carnivores. The craniolateral part is made by the ilium, the caudolateral part by the ischium and the medial part by the pubis. The cavity of the acetabulum consists of a peripheral '''articular lunate surface''' and the non-articular '''acetabular fossa''' in its centre. The lunate surface is crescent shaped and has on its medial aspect the '''acetabular notch'''. Cattle also have a '''cranioventral notch ''' present. The '''acetabular lip''' is a band of fibrocartilage that lies on the acetabular rim, thus deepening the acetabulum. The joint capsule is large and attaches to the acetabular lip.

The '''ligament of the femoral head''' connects the fovea in the head, by running through the acetabular notch, to the acetabular fossa. It is covered by a synovial membrane and for the majority is intracapsular. The '''acessory ligament of the femur''' is only present in the horse. It originates from the straight muscle of the abdomen and passes through the acetabular notch to finally attach in the fovea of the femoral head. The '''transverse acetabular ligament''' crosses the acetabular notch and ensures that the other two ligaments remain in their notch.

The '''ligament of the femoral head''' connects the fovea in the head, by running through the acetabular notch, to the acetabular fossa. It is covered by a synovial membrane and for the majority is intracapsular. The '''acessory ligament of the femur''' is only present in the horse. It originates from the straight muscle of the abdomen and passes through the acetabular notch to finally attach in the fovea of the femoral head. The '''transverse acetabular ligament''' crosses the acetabular notch and ensures that the other two ligaments remain in their notch.

The tibia is one of the major weight bearing bones of the hind limb and is involved in both the stifle and hock. The tibia can be divided into three distinct sections:

The tibia is one of the major weight bearing bones of the hind limb and is involved in both the stifle and hock. The tibia can be divided into three distinct sections:

1. '''''Proximal Extremity'''''

1.'''''Proximal Extremity'''''

 

:It is three sided and has two condyles which are separated by the '''popliteal notch''' on its caudal aspect. The condyles have an articular surface which articulates with its corresponding femoral condyle or the distal surface of the meniscus. In between these articular surfaces lies the '''intercondylar eminence'''. The '''central intercondylar area''' divides this into a '''higher medial part''' and a '''lower lateral part'''. Cranial and caudal to the eminence are depressions where ligaments attach. The lateral side of the condyle has an articular facet for the articulation with the fibula. The '''extensor groove''' is a large notch on the craniolateral aspect which allows passage of the long digital extensor muscle.

It is three sided and has two condyles which are seperated by the '''popliteal notch''' on its caudal aspect. The condyles have an articular surface which articulates with its corresponding femoral condyle or the distal surface of the meniscus. In between these articular surfaces lies the '''intercondylar eminence'''. The '''central intercondylar area''' divides this into a '''higher medial part''' and a '''lower lateral part'''. Cranial and caudal to the eminence are depressions where ligaments attach. The lateral side of the condyle has an articular facet for the articulation with the fibula. The '''extensor groove''' is a large notch on the craniolateral aspect which allows passage of the long digital extensor muscle.

2.'''''Tibial Shaft'''''

2.'''''Tibial Shaft'''''

 

:It is craniocaudally compressed. The '''tibial tuberosity/tibial crest''' projects cranially from the proximal part of the shaft and is an important palpable landmark. The '''cranial border of the tibia''' is an extension of the crest distally. It divides the cranial aspect of the shaft in two. The medial aspect is subcutaneous and the lateral aspect is covered in muscles.

It is craniocaudally compressed. The '''tibial tuberosity/tibial crest''' projects cranially from the proximal part of the shaft and is an important palpable landmark. The '''cranial border of the tibia''' is an extension of the crest distally. It divides the cranial aspect of the shaft in two. The medial aspect is subcutaneous and the lateral aspect is covered in muscles.

3. '''''Distal Extremity'''''

3. '''''Distal Extremity'''''

 

:This carries the '''cochlea''' which has two grooves divided by a ridge. This central ridge is directed sagittally in most species. The cochlea articulates with the trochlear ridges of the talus. The '''medial malleolus''' lies on the medial side of the cochlea and is a bony protuberence. The lateral aspect of the cochlea is highly variable in domestic species.

This carries the '''cochlea''' which has two grooves divided by a ridge. This central ridge is directed sagittally in most species. The cochlea articulates with the trochlear ridges of the talus. The '''medial malleolus''' lies on the medial side of the cochlea and is a bony protuberence. The lateral aspect of the cochlea is highly variable in domestic species.

Click here for [[Ossification Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Tibia|ossification centers of the tibia]].

Click here for [[Ossification Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Tibia|ossification centers of the tibia]].