Changes

== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia ('''CCPP''') is a cause of major economic losses to goat production in at least 30 countries in Africa and Asia containing a total goat population of more than 300 million.

Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia ('''CCPP''') is a cause of major economic losses to goat producers in Africa and Asia.

<br>

<br>

This condition is caused by ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum|Mycoplasma capricolum ''subsp.'' capricolum]]'' and occasionally ''M. mycoides'' subsp. ''capri'' or [[Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides|''M. mycoides'' subsp. ''mycoides'']]. It is a member of the ''Mycoplasma mycoides'' cluster which includes ''M. mycoides ''subsp. ''mycoides'' SC (MmmSC), ''M. mycoides ''subsp. ''mycoides'' LC (MmmLC), ''M. mycoides ''subsp. ''capri'' (Mmc), ''M. capricolum ''subsp.'' capricolum ''(Mcca) and [[Mycoplasmas|''Mycoplasma'']] species bovine group 7 (Bg7), an uncharacterized bovine isolate, which causes other diseases of ruminants. CCPP is a significant disease of goats in Africa, the Middle East and Western Asia, and is characterized primarily by its contagious nature. The disease causes interstitial, fibrinous pleuropneumonia, interlobular oedema and hepatization of the lung causing high mortality rates of up to 80% and morbidity rates of up to 100%.  

This condition is caused by ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum|Mycoplasma capricolum ''subsp.'' capricolum]]'' and occasionally ''M. mycoides'' subsp. ''capri'' or [[Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides|''M. mycoides'' subsp. ''mycoides'']]. It is a member of the ''Mycoplasma mycoides'' cluster.

<br>

<br>

The most important distinguishing features of CCPP, with respect to the other goat respiratory mycoplasmoses, were defined by Hutcheon and are quoted as follows: the disease is readily contagious to susceptible goats; sheep and cattle are not affected by disease; local oedematous reactions do not occur in goats when infective inoculum is given subcutaneously (Hutcheon, 1889).

CCPP is characterized primarily by its '''contagious nature'''. The disease causes '''interstitial fibrinous pleuropneumonia''', interlobular oedema and hepatization of the lung causing high mortality rates of up to 80% and morbidity rates of up to 100%.  

<br>

<br>

In natural infections, transmission of the disease is by aerosol. The environment as a whole plays an important role in the appearance, evolution and severity of CCPP. Due to the high sensitivity of mycoplasmas to the external environment, close contact is essential between infected and naive animals for transmission to take place, and, overcrowding and confinement favours close contact and circulation of mycoplasmas. Stress factors due to malnutrition and transport over long distances can predispose the animal to disease. In Africa where extensive and traditional husbandry is practised, pathogens spread when animals meet at watering points and grazing areas.

The most important distinguishing features of CCPP, with respect to the other goat respiratory mycoplasmoses, were defined by Hutcheon and are quoted as follows:

1) The disease is '''readily contagious to all susceptible goats''';

== Signalment ==

 

==Signalment==

CCPP affects only goats, of any breed, sex or age worldwide. Younger animals tend to suffer more severe clinical signs than adults.

CCPP affects only goats, of any breed, sex or age worldwide. Younger animals tend to suffer more severe clinical signs than adults.

== Clinical Signs ==

== Clinical Signs ==

The animal may appear generally depressed, dull, weak and lethargic. The animal will be pyrexic and have signs of weight loss of reduced weight gain. If the animal is in milk then milk yield will be severely reduced. Sometimes the disease may manifest as sudden death only.  

The animal may appear generally '''depressed, dull, weak and lethargic'''. The animal will then be pyrexic and have signs of '''weight loss''' of reduced weight gain.  

If the animal is in milk then milk yield will be severely reduced. Sometimes the disease may manifest as '''sudden death''' only.

Respiratory signs include '''bilateral nasal discharge, dyspnoea, tachypnoea and coughing'''. Some goats may appear to be in severe respiratory distress.

<br>

<br>

== Pathology ==

== Pathology ==

The gross pathological lesions are localized exclusively to lung and pleura and are often unilateral. Affected lungs can be totally hepatized, and have a port wine colour (Thiaucourt and Bölske, 1996). A lung section shows a fine granular texture with various colours, but usually without any thickening of the interlobular septa. There is often an abundant pleural exudate and conspicuous pleuritis. The pleural exudates can solidify and form a gelatinous covering sometimes over the whole lung. In acute cases, the pleural cavity contains an excess of straw-coloured fluid with fibrin flocculations (Kaliner and MacOwan, 1976; Wesonga et al., 1993). In chronic cases there is a black discolouration of the lung tissue and sequestration of the necrotic lung areas. Adhesions between the lung and the pleura are very common and often very thick (MacOwan and Minette, 1977).

The gross pathological lesions are localized exclusively to '''lung and pleura''' and are often unilateral. Affected lungs can be totally hepatized, and have a '''port wine colour'''<ref>Thiaucourt, F., Bölske, G (1996) '''Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and other pulmonary mycoplasmoses of sheep and goats'''. Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des épizooties, 15(4):1397-1414; 69</ref>. A lung section shows a fine granular texture with various colours, but usually without any thickening of the interlobular septa.  

Histological examination of the lung tissues may show acute serofibrinous to chronic fibrino-necrotic pleuropneumonia with infiltrates of serofibrinous fluid and inflammatory cells, mainly neutrophils, in the alveoli, bronchioles, interstitial septae and subpleural connective tissue. Intralobular oedema is more prominent but interlobular oedema has also been reported. Peribronchial and perbronchiolar lymphoid hyperplasia with mononuclear cell infiltration is also present (MacOwan and Minette, 1976; Kibor, 1990; Wesonga et al., 1998; Msami et al., 1998).

 

Abundant '''pleural exudate and pleuritis''' are common. The pleural exudates may have solidified forming a '''gelatinous covering.'''

In acute cases, the pleural cavity contains an excess of '''straw-coloured fluid''' with fibrin flocculations <ref>Wesonga, H. O., Lindberg, R., Litamoi, J. K., Bölske, G (1998) '''Late lesions of experimental contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma capricolum ssp. capripneumoniae.''' Journal of Veterinary Medicine. Series B, 45(2):105-114; 22</ref>. In chronic cases there is a '''black discolouration''' of the lung tissue and sequestration of necrotic lung areas.  

'''Adhesions''' between the lung and the pleura are very common and often very thick <ref>MacOwan, K. J., Minette, J. E (1977) '''The role of Mycoplasma strain F38 in contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Kenya.''' Veterinary Record, 101:380-381</ref>

Histological examination of the lung tissues may show acute '''serofibrinous to chronic fibrino-necrotic pleuropneumonia''' with neutrophilic inflammation in the alveoli, bronchioles, interstitial septae and subpleural connective tissue. Intralobular oedema is prominent and local lymphoid hyperplasia common.

== Diagnosis ==

== Diagnosis ==

In the field, diagnosis of mycoplasma pneumonia cannot be established on clinical signs or on postmortem examinations alone. In outbreaks of classical acute CCPP, the high mortality and typical early thoracic lesions in goats are highly indicative of ''M. capricolum'' subsp. ''capripneumoniae'' infection, but all cases of caprine mycoplasmosis need additional laboratory tests to establish a presumptive diagnosis.  

'''High mortality and typical early thoracic lesions''' in goats are highly indicative of ''M. capricolum'' subsp. ''capripneumoniae'' infection, but are not diagnostic.

 

An 'in the field' diagnostic procedure is the '''latex agglutination test '''(LAT) (Rurangirwa et al 1987b). This test is based on a polysaccharide isolated from Mccp (Rurangirwa et al 1987a) which is used to sensitise latex beads. The sensitised latex beads are then used to detect serum antibodies from goats infected with CCPP (Rurangirwa et al 1987b). The specificity of LAT was assessed using WM25 monoclonal antibody which is specific for Mccp (Rurangirwa et al 1987c; Belton et al 1994) and reacts with the polysaccharide (Rurangirwa et al 1992). The specificity of LAT was further confirmed by evaluating specific growth inhibiting rabbit antisera to various mycoplasma isolates (Rurangirwa et al 1987c). The sensitised latex beads are stable at 4°C, room temperature and 37°C for over one year. Thus the long shelf-life of the beads at different temperatures makes it possible to prepare large amounts which can be stored until used. The latex agglutination test is an excellent procedure for the diagnosis of CCPP and can be run in two minutes on samples of whole blood or serum, requires no sophisticated equipment or storage facilities and is adaptable to any laboratory or field conditions - an example of a pen-side diagnostic test. The test is carried out by mixing a drop of the sensitised beads with a drop of blood or serum from the suspected animal on a glass slide for one minute and the results read visually and recorded as positive or negative. LAT combined with presenting clinical signs and necropsy indicating fibrinous pleuropneumonia is confirmatory of Mccp associated CCPP.  

A valuable 'in the field' diagnostic procedure is the '''latex agglutination test'''(LAT)<ref>Rurangirwa FR, McGuire TC, Musoke AJ, Kobore A, 1987. Differentiation of F38 Mycoplasmas causing contagious caprine pleuropneumonia with a growth-inhibiting monoclonal antibody. Infection and Immunity, 55:3219-3220</ref>. The long shelf-life of the beads at different temperatures makes it possible to prepare large amounts which can be stored until used. This combined with the rapidity of the test, being run in two minutes, makes it a practical and useful test.

<br>

<br>

Definite diagnosis is made by the isolation of'' M. capricolum ''subsp. ''capripneumoniae'' from clinical samples, usually lung tissue and may be a long and difficult process. The success of isolation depends primarily on the attention that is given to sample collection.

Definitive diagnosis can also be made by the isolation of'' M. capricolum ''subsp. ''capripneumoniae'' from clinical samples, usually lung tissue but may be a long and difficult process and requires attentive sampling techniques.

<br>

<br>

The growth inhibition (GI) test is the simplest and most specific, but the least sensitive of the tests available. It depends on the direct inhibition of mycoplasma growth on solid media by specific hyperimmune serum, and detects primary surface antigens (Dighero et al., 1970).  

The growth inhibition (GI) test is the simplest and most specific, but the least sensitive of the tests available.

<br>

<br>

The direct and indirect [[Immunofluorescence|fluorescent antibody tests]] are among the most effective, simple and rapid serological methods of identification for most mycoplasma (Rosendal and Black, 1972). Several forms have been described, the most commonly used one is the indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test which is applied to unfixed colonies on agar.

The direct and indirect [[Immunofluorescence|fluorescent antibody tests]] are among the most effective, simple and rapid serological methods of identification for most mycoplasmas.<ref>Rosendal, S., Black, F. T (1972) '''Direct and indirect immunofluorescence of unfixed and fixed mycoplasma colonies.''' Acta Pathologica et Microbiologica Scandinavica, 80:615-622</ref>

<br>

<br>

The complement fixation test (CFT) and the indirect haemagglutination test (IHA) are serological methods of diagnosis, as is the [[ELISA testing|ELISA]]. These have varying degrees of efficacy.

The complement fixation test (CFT) and the indirect haemagglutination test (IHA) are serological methods of diagnosis, as is the [[ELISA testing|ELISA]]. These have varying degrees of efficacy.

<br>

<br>

Until recently, isolation was the only way to confirm the presence of CCPP. Diagnostic systems based on PCR have been developed for the rapid detection, identification and differentiation of members of the ''M. mycoides'' cluster and the specific identification of ''M. capricolum'' subsp. ''capripneumoniae'' (Bashiruddin et al., 1994; Hotzel et al., 1996).

Diagnostic systems based on PCR have now been developed for the rapid detection, identification and differentiation of ''M. capricolum'' subsp. ''capripneumoniae.''

The diagnosis of outbreaks of CCPP is complicated by other infectious agents causing similar syndromes. Pleuropneumonic disease resembling Mccp-associated CCPP can also be produced by ''Mycoplasma mycoides'' subsp. ''capri'' (Mmc) and caprine variants of ''M. mycoides ''subsp.'' mycoides'' (Mmm). Mmc was originally considered to be the cause of CCPP, but its full importance as a pathogen of goats has now become doubtful, both because of the discovery of the Mccp and because many isolates previously classified as Mmc have subsequently been found to be caprine variants of Mmm. Mmc has been isolated from several countries in Africa and Asia, and from Australia. The disease reproduced experimentally with Mmc is largely restricted to the thoracic cavity, with or without a septicaemic phase and death. In contrast, caprine variants of Mmm generally causes a syndrome which may include not only pleuropneumonia but also mastitis, polyarthritis, keratoconjunctivitis, acute septicaemic death, sometimes with symptoms of the central nervous system, and abortion. Mmm is a major cause of disease in goats in USA, France, Israel and India. Experimentally, the disease caused by Mccp differs from that produced by Mmc and Mmm in: being readily contagious and fatal to susceptible goats; not affecting sheep or cattle; not producing local oedematous reactions when injected subcutaneously; and being characterised histo-pathologically by an interstitial, intralobular oedema of the lung, compared with the thickening of the interlobular septa which is seen with Mmc and Mmm (Kaliner and MacOwan 1976). ''[[Pasteurella haemolytica]]'' (both biotypes A and T) and ''[[Pasteurella multocida|P. multocida]]'' have also been associated with pleuropneumonia in goats, although experimental evidence of their pathogenicity in this host is meagre.

The diagnosis of outbreaks of CCPP is often complicated by other infectious agents causing similar syndromes including other mycoplasmas and ''[[Pasteurella haemolytica]]''.

== Treatment and Control ==

== Treatment and Control ==

The macrolides (erythromycin, spiramysin, and tylosin), tetracyclines and quinolones are active against ''M. capricolum'' subsp.'' capripneumoniae''.  

The macrolides ('''erythromycin, spiramysin, and tylosin'''), '''tetracyclines and quinolones''' are active against ''M. capricolum'' subsp.'' capripneumoniae''.  

<br>

<br>

Control measures include prevention of mixing and good hygiene. Movement restrictions and slaughtering infected animals are recommended for countries that are newly infected.

Control measures include '''prevention of mixing and good hygiene'''.  

Movement restrictions and slaughtering infected animals are recommended for countries that are newly infected.

{{Learning

{{Learning

|flashcards = [[Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia Flashcards]]

|flashcards = [[Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia Flashcards]]

}}

}}

== References ==

== References ==

Bashiruddin JB, Taylor TK, Gould AR, 1994. A PCR-based test for the specific identification of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 6(4):428-434; 14 ref.

Bashiruddin, J. B., Taylor, T. K., Gould, A. R (1994) '''A PCR-based test for the specific identification of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC.''' J Vet Diagnostic Investigation, 6(4):428-434; 14.

Hotzel H, Sachse K, Pfützner H, 1996. A PCR scheme for differentiation of organisms belonging to the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster. Veterinary Microbiology, 49(1/2):31-43; 21 ref.

<br>

<br>

Hutcheon D, 1889. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia in goats at Cape Colony, South Africa. Veterinary Journal, 29:399-404.

Bashiruddin, J. B., Windsor, G. D (1998) '''Coloured colonies of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC and Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae on solid agar media for the presumptive diagnosis of CBPP and CCPP.''' ''In:Proceedings of the ARC-Onderstepoort OIE International congress with WHO-cosponsorship on Anthrax, Brucellosis, CBPP, Clostridial and Mycobacterial diseases.'' 9-15, Kruger National Park, South Africa, 226-229.

<br>

<br>

Kaliner G, MacOwan KJ, 1976. The pathology of experimental and natural contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya. Zentrablat Veterinary Medicine B, 23:652-661.

Belton, D., Leach, R. H., Mitchelmore, D. L., Rurangirwa, F. R (1994) '''Serological specificity of a monoclonal antibody to Mycoplasma capricolum strain F38, the agent of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia.''' Veterinary Record, 134(25):643-646; 21.

<br>

<br>

Kibor AC, 1990. Methods for the laboratory diagnosis of cantagious carprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP). In: Alton GG, Carter GR, Kibor AC, Pesti L, eds. Veterinary Diagnostic Microbiology. A manual of laboratory procedures for selected diseases of livestock. Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 169-200.

Dighero, M. W., Bradstreet, P. C. M., Andrews, B. E (1970) '''Dried paper discs for serological identification of human mycoplasmas.''' J Applied Bacteriology, 33:750-757.

<br>

<br>

MacOwan KJ, 1976. A mycoplasma from chronic caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya. Tropical Animal Health Production, 8:28-36.

Hotzel, H., Sachse, K., Pfützner, H (1996) '''A PCR scheme for differentiation of organisms belonging to the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster.''' Vet Microbiology, 49(1/2):31-43; 21.

<br>

<br>

MacOwan KJ, Minette JE, 1976. A mycoplasma from acute contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya. Tropical Animal Health Production, 8:91-95.

Hutcheon, D (1889) '''Contagious pleuro-pneumonia in goats at Cape Colony, South Africa.''' Veterinary Journal, 29:399-404.

<br>

<br>

MacOwan KJ, Minette JE, 1977. The role of Mycoplasma strain F38 in contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Kenya. Veterinary Record, 101:380-381.

Kaliner, G., MacOwan, K. J (1976) '''The pathology of experimental and natural contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya.''' Zentrablat Veterinary Medicine B, 23:652-661.

<br>

<br>

Msami HM, Kapaga AM, Bölske G et al., 1998. Occurance of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Tanzania. Tanzania Veterinary Journal, 18:285- 297.

Kibor, A. C (1990. Methods for the laboratory diagnosis of cantagious carprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP). In: Alton GG, Carter GR, Kibor AC, Pesti L, eds. Veterinary Diagnostic Microbiology. A manual of laboratory procedures for selected diseases of livestock. Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 169-200.

<br>

<br>

Rosendal S, Black FT, 1972. Direct and indirect immunofluorescence of unfixed and fixed mycoplasma colonies. Acta Pathologica et Microbiologica Scandinavica, 80:615-622.

MacOwan, K. J (1976) '''A mycoplasma from chronic caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya'''. Tropical Animal Health Production, 8:28-36.

<br>

<br>

Rurangirwa FR, McGuire TC, Kibor A, Chema S, 1987. A latex agglutination test for field diagnosis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Veterinary Record, 121(9):191-193; 11 ref.

MacOwan, K. J., Minette, J. E (1976) '''A mycoplasma from acute contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Kenya'''. Tropical Animal Health Production, 8:91-95.

<br>

<br>

Rurangirwa FR, McGuire TC, Magnuson NS, Kibor A, Chema S, 1987. Composition of a polysaccharide from mycoplasma (F-38) recognised by antibodies from goats with contagious pleuropneumonia. Research in Veterinary Science, 42(2):175-178; 16 ref.

Msami, H. M., Kapaga, A. M., Bölske, G (1998) ''Occurance of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in Tanzania.''' Tanzania Veterinary Journal, 18:285- 297.

<br>

<br>

Rurangirwa FR, McGuire TC, Musoke AJ, Kobore A, 1987. Differentiation of F38 Mycoplasmas causing contagious caprine pleuropneumonia with a growth-inhibiting monoclonal antibody. Infection and Immunity, 55:3219-3220.

Rurangirwa, F. R., McGuire, T. C., Kibor, A., Chema, S (1987) A latex agglutination test for field diagnosis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Veterinary Record, 121(9):191-193; 11.

<br>

<br>

Thiaucourt F, Bölske G, 1996. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and other pulmonary mycoplasmoses of sheep and goats. Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des épizooties, 15(4):1397-1414; 69 ref.

Rurangirwa, F. R., McGuire, T. C., Magnuson, N. S., Kibor, A., Chema, S(1987) '''Composition of a polysaccharide from mycoplasma (F-38) recognised by antibodies from goats with contagious pleuropneumonia.''' Research in Veterinary Science, 42(2):175-178; 16

<br>

<br>

Thiaucourt F, Bölske G, Leneguersh B, Smith D, Wesonga H, 1996. Diagnosis and control of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des épizooties, 15(4):1415-1429; 35 ref.

Thiaucourt, F., Bölske, G., Leneguersh, B., Smith, D., Wesonga, H (1996) '''Diagnosis and control of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia.''' ''Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des épizooties'', 15(4):1415-1429; 35.

<br>

<br>

Wesonga HO, Lindberg R, Litamoi JK, Bölske G, 1998. Late lesions of experimental contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma capricolum ssp. capripneumoniae. Journal of Veterinary Medicine. Series B, 45(2):105-114; 22 ref.

Wesonga, H. O., Litamoi, J. K., Kagumba, M., Wakhusama, E (1993) '''Relationship between clinical signs and early lesions of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma strain F38'''. Small Ruminant Research, 10(1):45-54; 15  

Wesonga HO, Litamoi JK, Kagumba M, Wakhusama E, 1993. Relationship between clinical signs and early lesions of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma strain F38. Small Ruminant Research, 10(1):45-54; 15 ref.

 

{{review}}

{{review}}