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=== ''C. annulata'' ===
=== ''C. annulata'' ===
This species affects many species of wild birds as well as domesticated poultry and ducks. The earthworm is the intermediate host for this species, making it difficult to control. Young birds are more susceptible to the disease. Immune adults may be carriers. The predeliction site for this worm is the oesophagus of the bird where it will bury the anterior end into the mucosa causing inflammation. High levels can result in marked thickening of the oesophageal wall and can be fatal. The presence of these worms in low numbers may be a cause of ill thrift in production birds, though in high number emaciation can be seen. Clinical signs may appear very rapidly with heavy burdens, before the presence of eggs in the faeces, and so diagnosis is usually made on necropsy examination of the oesophagus and crop.
This species affects many species of wild birds as well as domesticated poultry and ducks. The earthworm is the intermediate host for this species, making it difficult to control. Young birds are more susceptible to the disease. Immune adults may be carriers. The predeliction site for this worm is the oesophagus of the bird where it will bury the anterior end into the mucosa causing inflammation. High levels can result in marked thickening of the oesophageal wall and can be fatal. The presence of these worms in low numbers may be a cause of ill thrift in production birds, though in high number emaciation can be seen.
=== ''C. contorta'' ===
=== ''C. contorta'' ===
''Capillaria aerophila'' is associated with [[Respiratory Parasitic Infections - Pathology#Capillaria_aerophila|respiratory disease]] of cats and dogs. The worm can be found in the [[Rhinitis#Infectious_causes_of_rhinitis|nasal passages]], [[Sinusitis|sinuses]], [[Tracheitis#Infectious_causes_of_traacheitis|trachea]] and [[Bronchitis#Infectious_causes_of_bronchitis_or_bronchiolitis|bronchi]]. The presence of the worms causes a mild catarrhal inflammation and can cause coughing in dogs but not in all cases. In heavy infestation may cause obstruction of the lumen of airways and may develop into secondary [[Bronchopneumonia|bronchopneumonia]]
''Capillaria aerophila'' is associated with [[Respiratory Parasitic Infections - Pathology#Capillaria_aerophila|respiratory disease]] of cats and dogs. The worm can be found in the [[Rhinitis#Infectious_causes_of_rhinitis|nasal passages]], [[Sinusitis|sinuses]], [[Tracheitis#Infectious_causes_of_traacheitis|trachea]] and [[Bronchitis#Infectious_causes_of_bronchitis_or_bronchiolitis|bronchi]]. The presence of the worms causes a mild catarrhal inflammation and can cause coughing in dogs but not in all cases. In heavy infestation may cause obstruction of the lumen of airways and may develop into secondary [[Bronchopneumonia|bronchopneumonia]]
==Clinical Signs==
Young birds exhibit the most serious clinical signs, including: '''weight loss''', '''diarrhoea''', regurgitation, anaemia and oral necrotic plaques.
==Diagnosis==
'''Faecal flotation''' can be carried out to identify the typical barrel-shaped eggs.
However, eggs laid within the gastrointestinal epithelium are only released into the lumen of the digestive tract when the epithelium sloughs. Therefore, severe clinical signs may be associated with negative or low faecal egg counts. Therefore diagnosis is usually made on '''necropsy examination''' of the oesophagus and intestines. The worms are small and must be looked for carefully in mucosal washings under a dissecting microscope.
==Treatment==
Treatment can be challenging as Capillaria species often demonstrate '''multiple drug resistance'''. Fenbendazole, mebendazole and ivermectin have been used and efficacy of therapy should be checked through repeat faecal flotation tests.
==References==
Trees, A. (1987) '''Parasitic conditions in poultry 2: Helminths and arthropods''' ''In Practice''; 9:157-161
Lloyd, C. (2003) '''Avian Practice: Control of nematode infections in captive birds''' ''In Practice''; 25:198-206
Saif, Y. (2003) '''Diseases of Poultry''' ''Wiley-Blackwell''
== Literature Search ==
== Literature Search ==
[[Category:Trichinelloidea]] [[Category:Respiratory_Parasitic_Infections]] [[Category:Dog_Parasites]] [[Category:Cat_Nematodes]] [[Category:Avian_Nematodes]] [[Category:Expert_Review - Parasites]]
[[Category:Trichinelloidea]] [[Category:Respiratory_Parasitic_Infections]] [[Category:Dog_Parasites]] [[Category:Cat_Nematodes]] [[Category:Avian_Nematodes]] [[Category:Expert_Review - Parasites]]
[[Category:To Do - Manson]]
[[Category:To Do - Manson]]
[[Category:To Do - Helen]]