Changes

==Signalment==

==Signalment==

The specific nutrient deficiency that contributes to a sinus infection in birds is '''hypovitaminosis A'''. This can occur if the bird is fed and '''all seed diet''', which is '''deficient''' in '''vitamin A''', '''iodine''' and '''calcium''', therefore it is essential that a full dietary history is taken. Vitamin A deficiency results in the failure of some cells to differentiate normally. In the sinus, the epithelial lining degenerates into '''squamous metaplasia''' resulting in a '''thickening of the mucus''' that washes the debris from the sinus. This thickening '''reduces flow rates''' and allows '''bacteria''' and '''debris''' to persist on the sinus lining until infection occurs. This deficiency can also contribute to the development of and '''rhinoliths''', '''abscesses''' and '''conjunctivitis'''.

'''Hypovitaminosis A''' is a nutritional deficiency thought to predispose birds to sinusitis. This can occur if the bird is fed and '''all seed diet''', which is '''deficient''' in '''vitamin A''', '''iodine''' and '''calcium''', therefore it is essential that a full dietary history is taken. Vitamin A deficiency causes some cells to differentiate abnormally. This occurs in the sinus, where the epithelial lining degenerates into '''squamous metaplasia'''. This causes the '''mucus to thicken''', thus preventing debris from being flushed out of the sinus. This results in a '''build-up of debris and bacteria''', eventually resulting in infection. This deficiency can also contribute to the development of and '''rhinoliths''', '''abscesses''' and '''conjunctivitis'''.

==Clinical Signs==

==Clinical Signs==

==Treatment==

==Treatment==

Proper treatment consists of '''antibiotic therapy''' for the infection, ideally with Baytril and a '''single dose of 20 000 IU vitamin A per kg body weight i.m'''., followed by '''supplementation of the diet with vitamin A'''. Treatment of the infection without this supplementation renders the bird likely to have a recurrence of the infection. Drainage and flushing of the sinus with antibiotics can be attempted in severe cases but due to the anatomy of the sinuses and the nature of the inspissated  pus produced, it is normally unsuccessful. If rhinoliths or choanal abcesses are present they should be removed using a needle or dental instruments.  

Ideally the bird should be treated with the '''antibiotic 'Baytril'''' as it covers the above-mentioned bacteria. Additionally the bird should receive a dose of '''Vitamin A''' by '''intramuscular''' injection. Subsequent dietary supplementation of Vitamin A by feeding '''orange''' and '''dark green vegetables''' is necessary to prevent recurrence of infection. Drainage and flushing of the sinus with antibiotics can be attempted in severe cases but due to the anatomy of the sinuses and the nature of the inspissated  pus produced, it is normally unsuccessful. If rhinoliths or choanal abcesses are present they should be removed using a needle or dental instruments.  

==Prognosis==

==Prognosis==

If the dietary deficiencies are addressed by feeding '''orange''' and '''dark green vegetables''' long term then infection is unlikely to recurr. Therefore, if the bird recovers well from the original episode of sinusitis the prognosis is '''good'''.

If the dietary deficiencies are addressed long term then infection is unlikely to recurr. Therefore, if the bird recovers well from the original episode of sinusitis the prognosis is '''good'''.

==References==

==References==