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*Early experience during the sensitive period affects the way a cat interacts with people.

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==Introduction==

==Introduction==

Tolerance or appreciation of human contact is learned as a result of early experience during the sensitive period. In many cases aggressive cats are the product of an unsatisfactory start in life and problems arise. For example, a lack of appropriate handling between two and seven weeks of age will cause a cat to grow up to be wary of people and to have a predisposition towards defensively aggressive behaviour if it is placed in a situation where it feels threatened. Experience teaches these individuals that their aggressive behaviour is very effective at maintaining distance between themselves and any person of whom they are suspicious. Before long the aggressive display is used as a pre-emptive rather than a reactionary behaviour. This results in a noticeable change in the cat’s strategy for dealing with fear. Early in the course of the problem, the cat will show noticeable signs of fear, attempting to use defence strategies such as running away or hiding. However, over time it will begin to select aggressive responses more readily so that a more offensive patter of behaviour is seen. By the time some of these cases are brought to the attention of the veterinary practice or referred for specific professional advice the initial fearful motivation for the behaviour may be obscured by the cat’s overt hostility and offensive behaviour.  

Tolerance or appreciation of human contact is learned as a result of early experience during the sensitive period. In many cases aggressive cats are the product of an unsatisfactory start in life and problems arise. For example, a lack of appropriate handling between two and seven weeks of age will cause a cat to grow up to be wary of people and to have a predisposition towards defensively aggressive behaviour if it is placed in a situation where it feels threatened. Experience teaches these individuals that their aggressive behaviour is very effective at maintaining distance between themselves and any person of whom they are suspicious. Before long the aggressive display is used as a pre-emptive rather than a reactionary behaviour. This results in a noticeable change in the cat’s strategy for dealing with fear. Early in the course of the problem, the cat will show noticeable signs of fear, attempting to use defence strategies such as running away or hiding. However, over time it will begin to select aggressive responses more readily so that a more offensive pattern of behaviour is seen. By the time some of these cases are brought to the attention of the veterinary practice or referred for specific professional advice the initial fearful motivation for the behaviour may be obscured by the cat’s overt hostility and offensive behaviour.  

It is important to question the owner about any previous traumatic experience involving people, the use of inappropriate punishment for behaviour in the past or the presence of inappropriate and unintentional reward of the present behaviour.  

It is important to question the owner about any previous traumatic experience involving people, the use of inappropriate punishment for behaviour in the past or the presence of inappropriate and unintentional reward of the present behaviour.  

Cats that are exhibiting fear-related aggression toward people will often adopt characteristic postures and use defensive vocalisation prior to a defensive paw swipe, which is intended to drive the threat to a greater distance. The response of the person may be significant in the progression of the problem behaviour and it should be remembered that the owner’s attempts at reassurance often reinforce fear and aggression by increasing social pressure on the cat and thereby increasing the perception of threat. In situations where owners try to deal with the aggressive behaviour by punishing the cat, an anticipation of the owner’s apparent ‘aggression’ may increase the cat's fear further and lead to an escalation of the problem.  

Cats that are exhibiting fear-related aggression toward people will often adopt characteristic postures and use defensive vocalisation prior to a defensive paw swipe, which is intended to drive the threat to a greater distance. The response of the person may be significant in the progression of the problem behaviour and it should be remembered that the owner’s attempts at reassurance often reinforce fear and aggression by increasing social pressure on the cat and thereby increasing the perception of threat. In situations where owners try to deal with the aggressive behaviour by punishing the cat, an anticipation of the owner’s apparent ‘aggression’ may increase the cat's fear further and lead to an escalation of the problem.  

==Prevention of Fear-Related Aggression Towards People==

==Prevention of Fear-Related Aggression Towards People==

Kittens should be reared in complex and stimulating environments including contact with many different people and other animals.

*Kittens should be reared in complex and stimulating environments including contact with many different people and other animals.

They should experience a wide range of domestic noises and events so that these do not produce fear, anxiety or stress in the future.

*They should experience a wide range of domestic noises and events so that these do not produce fear, anxiety or stress in the future.

Immature animals should not be exposed to fearful or threatening situations or events.

*Immature animals should not be exposed to fearful or threatening situations or events.

Physical punishment should NEVER be used in the training of cats or kittens.

*Physical punishment should NEVER be used in the training of cats or kittens.

==Diagnosis==

==Diagnosis==

Fear-related aggression is a motivational diagnosis and it can be associated with a variety of contexts. In some cases it may therefore be beneficial to add a contextual label as part of the diagnosis. For example, a cat that is aggressive when handled by the owner may be diagnosed as displaying “aggression associated with handling” that is fear motivated and a cat that is fearful of strangers and shows aggression to the owners when visitors are present may be diagnosed as a case of “redirected aggression”, which is motivated by frustration of the fear response. In both cases “fear-related aggression” is the underlying motivational diagnosis and treatment of the cat’s underlying fear is crucial to the success of treatment but the contextual labels help the owner to understand when the behaviour may occur and to take steps to avoid it.  

Fear-related aggression is a motivational diagnosis and it can be associated with a variety of contexts. In some cases it may therefore be beneficial to add a contextual label as part of the diagnosis. For example, a cat that is aggressive when handled by the owner may be diagnosed as displaying “aggression associated with handling” that is fear motivated and a cat that is fearful of strangers and shows aggression to the owners when visitors are present may be diagnosed as a case of “redirected aggression”, which is motivated by frustration of the fear response. In both cases “fear-related aggression” is the underlying motivational diagnosis and treatment of the cat’s underlying fear is crucial to the success of treatment but the contextual labels help the owner to understand when the behaviour may occur and to take steps to avoid it.  

==Treatment==

==Treatment==

The general method employed is:

The general method employed is:

*Identify the general class of target.

*Identify the general class of target.

*Grade the response to target according to appearance or behaviour. Some cats are more aggressive towards men or children and may react differently according to their clothing, what the person is carrying or how they are moving. List all those features which affect the cat’s response so that they can be introduced during training.

*Grade the response to the target according to appearance or behaviour. Some cats are more aggressive towards men or children and may react differently according to their clothing, what the person is carrying or how they are moving. List all of the features which affect the cat’s response so that they can be introduced during training.

*Find a group of willing volunteers who will be able to act as stooges for training.

*Find a group of willing volunteers who will be able to act as stooges for training.

*Prepare the home environment with suitable escape places for the cat to use.

*Prepare the home environment with suitable escape places for the cat to use.

====Clicker Training====

====Clicker Training====

In some instances clicker training may be an effective way of training cats to respond appropriately to the presence of people. The cat is first trained to associate the sound of a click with the delivery of a small food reward. This is achieved by clicking and then dropping a piece of food approximately 20-30 times until there is some sign of positive anticipation on the part of the cat.

In some instances clicker training may be an effective way of training cats to respond appropriately to the presence of people. First of all the cat is trained to associate the sound of a click with the delivery of a small food reward. This is achieved by clicking and then dropping a piece of food approximately 20-30 times until there is some sign of positive anticipation on the part of the cat.

Clicks are then only delivered when the cat carries out a specific behaviour, such as sitting. Once the cat is reliably sitting to get a click this behaviour can be ‘named’. Just as the cat is about to sit, the trainer says the command word that is intended to cue the behaviour: for example saying ‘sit’. After doing this a further 20-30 times most cats will be reliably trained to sit on cue.

Clicks are then only delivered when the cat carries out a specific behaviour, such as sitting. Once the cat is reliably sitting to get a click this behaviour can be ‘named’. Just as the cat is about to sit, the trainer says the command word that is intended to cue the behaviour: for example saying ‘sit’. After doing this a further 20-30 times most cats will be reliably trained to sit on cue.

====Psychoactive Medication====

====Psychoactive Medication====

In some cases of fear-aggression, the use of psychoactive medication may be useful to support behavioural therapy. In the case of fear-related aggression Selegiline may be used to reduce apprehension. The effect of this drug is to increase exploratory behaviour and confidence in fearful situations. It can also enhance the perception of reward, and thereby improve responses to counterconditioning procedures. However, by encouraging the animal to approach closer to the target of the fear-related aggression there is an increased risk of injury if the person startles the cat by making a sudden noise or movement. This appears worst during the initiation of treatment [the first 4-6 weeks of medication].  

In some cases of fear-aggression, the use of psychoactive medication may be useful to support behavioural therapy. Selegiline may be used to reduce apprehension. The effect of this drug is to increase exploratory behaviour and confidence in fearful situations. It can also enhance the perception of reward, and thereby improve responses to counterconditioning procedures. However, by encouraging the animal to move closer to the target of the fear-related aggression there is an increased risk of injury if the person startles the cat by making a sudden noise or movement. This appears to be worst during the initiation of treatment [the first 4-6 weeks of medication].  

Serotonergic drugs such as Fluoxetine and Clomipramine may be used to reduce aggression where anxiety is a causative factor. However, in many cases of fear-related aggression anxiety over the consequences of launching an attack may be the only thing that prevents it. Reduction of anxiety in these cases can cause disinhibition of this anxiety, producing greater risk of attacks and injuries. Great care must therefore be taken when considering the use of any psychoactive drug; they can only be used safely and effectively after a thorough assessment of the case, and in combination with a well organised behavioural therapy plan and management to reduce risk of injury. No drug is currently licensed for the treatment of feline fear-related aggression, so informed consent must be obtained at the time of prescribing.

Serotonergic drugs such as Fluoxetine and Clomipramine may be used to reduce aggression where anxiety is a causative factor. However, in many cases of fear-related aggression anxiety over the consequences of launching an attack may be the only thing that prevents it. Reduction of anxiety in these cases can cause disinhibition of this anxiety, producing greater risk of attacks and injuries. Great care must therefore be taken when considering the use of any psychoactive drug; they can only be used safely and effectively after a thorough assessment of the case, and in combination with a well organised behavioural therapy plan and management to reduce risk of injury. No drug is currently licensed for the treatment of feline fear-related aggression, so informed consent must be obtained at the time of prescribing.