Changes

====Fatty Acids====

====Fatty Acids====

For cats, cis-linoleic and arachidonic acid are essential for life.However, other fatty acids, specifically long-chain omega-3; docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are fundamental for certain aspects of development (both neuronal and retinal) and for neurotransmission. They also help to combat oxidative stress.<ref>Innis, S.M. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr 2007:137:855-9</ref>. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) has an important anti-inflammatory effect. The conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to long-chain EPA and DHA is very inefficacious<ref name="Zicker"> Zicker, S.C, Jewell, D.E., Yamka, R.M., et al. Evaluation of cognitive learning, memory, psychomotor, immunologic, and retinal functions in healthy puppies fed foods fortified with docosahexanoeic acid-rich fish oil from 8-52 weeks. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012;241:583-94</ref>. These can be added to the diet as a supplement and may be particularly important in gestation, lactation and post-weaning<ref>Bauer, J.E., Heinemann, K.M., Lees, G.E., et al. Retinal functions of young dogs are improved and maternal plasma phospholipids are altered with diets containing long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation, lactation, and after weaning. J Nutr 2006;1191S-994S</ref>. Further to the already mentioned effects DHA supplementation has been linked to an improved memory, cognitive, psychomotor and immunologic function and better problem-solving skills in puppies<ref>Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E., Docosaheaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006;228:700-6</ref><ref name="Zicker"/>, this is also likely to be applicable to felines.

For cats, cis-linoleic and arachidonic acid are essential fatty acids. However, other fatty acids, specifically long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are essential for normal development<ref>Innis, S.M. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr 2007:137:855-9</ref>. DHA and EPA have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects<ref>Serini, S., Bizzarro, A., Piccioni, E., Fasano, E., Rossi, C., Lauria, A., Cittadini, A.R., Masullo, C., Calviello, G. (2012) EPA and DHA differentially affect in vitro inflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Alzheimer's patients. Curr Alzheimer Res. 9(8):913-23.</ref><ref>Weldon, S.M., Mullen, A.C., Loscher, C.E., Hurley, L.A., Roche, H.M. (2007) Docosahexaenoic acid induces an anti-inflammatory profile in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. J Nutr Biochem. 18(4):250-8.</ref><ref>Mullen, A., Loscher, C.E., Roche, H.M. (2010) Anti-inflammatory effects of EPA and DHA are dependent upon time and dose-response elements associated with LPS stimulation in THP-1-derived macrophages.. J Nutr Biochem. 21(5):444-50.</ref>.

 

The conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to long-chain EPA and DHA is very inefficacious<ref name="Zicker"> Zicker, S.C, Jewell, D.E., Yamka, R.M., et al. Evaluation of cognitive learning, memory, psychomotor, immunologic, and retinal functions in healthy puppies fed foods fortified with docosahexanoeic acid-rich fish oil from 8-52 weeks. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012;241:583-94</ref>. These can be added to the diet as a supplement and may be particularly important in gestation, lactation and post-weaning<ref>Bauer, J.E., Heinemann, K.M., Lees, G.E., et al. Retinal functions of young dogs are improved and maternal plasma phospholipids are altered with diets containing long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation, lactation, and after weaning. J Nutr 2006;1191S-994S</ref>. Further to the already mentioned effects DHA supplementation has been linked to an improved memory, cognitive, psychomotor and immunologic function and better problem-solving skills in puppies<ref>Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E., Docosaheaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006;228:700-6</ref><ref name="Zicker"/>, this is also likely to be applicable to felines.

==Behavioural Problems Related to Diet and Their Diagnosis==

==Behavioural Problems Related to Diet and Their Diagnosis==