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==Introduction==

==Introduction==

Fear and anxiety are normal emotions that enable animals to avoid harm. In both states the animal is in a heightened state of arousal in preparation for a negative outcome (e.g. physical harm). The key difference is that in anxiety the threat is anticipated but not actually present, but in fear the threat is present or imminent. An animal may become anxious in a situation in which harm is anticipated, switching to fear when the threat has been identified.

'''Fear''' and '''anxiety''' are normal emotions that enable animals to avoid harm. In both states the animal is in a heightened state of arousal in preparation for a negative outcome (e.g. physical harm). The key difference is that in '''anxiety the threat is anticipated but not actually present''', but in '''fear the threat is present or imminent'''. An animal may become anxious in a situation in which harm is anticipated, switching to fear when the threat has been identified.

'''Anxiety''' is the apprehensive anticipation of future threat or danger accompanied by somatic signs of increased arousal and tension. Anxious animals show increased vigilance and an inability to focus their attention on a specific stimulus. This is because the function of anxiety is to maintain arousal in preparation for threat, whilst the animal gathers information about its environment to determine the source of the potential threat and how best to respond when threat arises. Anxiety is seen in situations in which threat or conflict has previously been experienced, as well as in new situations in which the individual is unable to predict or control what may happen to it. Anxiety can be acute or chronic, and has a pervasive effect on the animal's behaviour. It interferes with the individual's the ability to respond to normal social and environmental cues. When functional, anxiety operates over short periods to enable the individual to prepare for real hazards. Anxiety is dysfunctional when it is sustained in the absence of real threat, leading to persistently increased adrenergic arousal and cortisol release that depletes energy resources and effects such as immune suppression.

'''Anxiety''' is the apprehensive anticipation of future threat or danger accompanied by somatic signs of increased arousal and tension. Anxious animals show increased vigilance and an inability to focus their attention on a specific stimulus. This is because the function of anxiety is to maintain arousal in preparation for threat, whilst the animal gathers information about its environment to determine the source of the potential threat and how best to respond when that threat arises. Anxiety is seen in situations in which threat or conflict has previously been experienced, as well as in new situations in which the individual is unable to predict or control what may happen to it. Anxiety can be '''acute''' or '''chronic''', and has a pervasive effect on the animal's behaviour. It interferes with the individual's ability to respond to normal social and environmental cues. When '''functional''', anxiety operates over short periods to enable the individual to prepare for real hazards. Anxiety is '''dysfunctional''' when it is sustained in the absence of real threat, leading to persistently increased adrenergic arousal and cortisol release that depletes energy resources and has effects such as immune suppression.

'''Fear''' is the apprehension of a specific object, person or situation. The source of fear is localisable and identifiable. Its presentation elicits fear and its removal terminates it. Fear is a normal, adaptive experience that enables an individual to avoid harm, and is socially communicated between conspecifics. It is also postulated that there is a strong relationship between fear and frustration. Frustration is experienced when an individual does not achieve an expected positive outcome. So, both fear and frustration relate to an expectation of a negative outcome. Experimentally, animals respond with precisely the same escape response both to fear and frustration, so it is assumed that both experiences relate to the same underlying emotional response.  

'''Fear''' is the apprehension of a specific object, person or situation. The source of fear is localisable and identifiable, its presentation elicits fear and its removal terminates it. Fear is a '''normal, adaptive''' experience that enables an individual to avoid harm, and is socially communicated between conspecifics. It is also postulated that there is a strong relationship between fear and frustration. Frustration is experienced when an individual does not achieve an expected positive outcome. So, both fear and frustration relate to an expectation of a negative outcome. Experimentally, animals respond with precisely the same escape response both to fear and frustration, so it is assumed that both experiences relate to the same underlying emotional response.  

Phobic fear and panic are intense, abnormal and behaviourally disruptive variants of normal fear and anxiety. Panic and phobia are maladaptive; they lead to a reduction in the animal's ability to cope and perform normal behaviours.

'''Phobic fear''' and '''panic''' are intense, abnormal and behaviourally disruptive variants of normal fear and anxiety. Panic and phobia are '''maladaptive'''; they lead to a reduction in the animal's ability to cope and perform normal behaviours.  

'''Phobic''' fear is more intense and long lasting than normal fear. The animal reacts with a high-level of fear even to low level presentations of the fearful stimulus, and then takes a long time to recover from it. Phobic fears do not naturally extinguish with repeated exposure and in fact tend to worsen over time.

*'''Phobic fear''' is more intense and long lasting than normal fear. The animal reacts with a high-level of fear even to low level presentations of the fearful stimulus, and then takes a long time to recover from it. Phobic fears do not naturally extinguish with repeated exposure and in fact tend to worsen over time.

'''Panic''' attacks are discrete episodes of intense anxiety and arousal. In humans, panic is associated with tachycardia and dyspnoea, which the patient may perceive to be severe enough to be life threatening. Animals are unable to report the feelings associated with panic, so it is assumed to occur based on signs. It tends to occur when an animal is unable to avoid or escape from a situation in which it is already anxious.  

*'''Panic''' attacks are discrete episodes of intense anxiety and arousal. In humans, panic is associated with tachycardia and [[Dyspnoea - Cat|dyspnoea]], which the patient may perceive to be severe enough to be life threatening. Animals are unable to report the feelings associated with panic, so it is assumed to occur based on signs. It tends to occur when an animal is unable to avoid or escape from a situation in which it is already anxious.  

Cats will display absolute avoidance of any situation in which panic or phobic fear has previously been experienced and will engage extreme escape responses.

Cats will display absolute avoidance of any situation in which panic or phobic fear has previously been experienced and will engage extreme escape responses.

Fear is a normal, adaptive experience that enables an individual to avoid harm.  

Fear is a normal, adaptive experience that enables an individual to avoid harm.  

'''Normal Fear Response Behaviours observed include:

'''Normal fear response behaviours observed include:

* Facial and postural expressions of fear, directed at fear eliciting stimulus (ear & tail position, piloerection, facial expression, muscular rigidity, posture)

* Facial and postural expressions of fear, directed at fear eliciting stimulus (ear & tail position, piloerection, facial expression, muscular rigidity, posture)

* Sympathetic arousal (graded to threat)

* Sympathetic arousal (graded to threat)

When frightened, animals engage in a set of Species Specific Defence Reactions (SSDRs), known as "The Four Fs".

When frightened, animals engage in a set of Species Specific Defence Reactions (SSDRs), known as "The Four Fs". These include:

These include:

* Fight

* Fight

* Flight

* Flight

* "Fiddling about" (performing apparently unrelated behaviours such as grooming)

* "Fiddling about" (performing apparently unrelated behaviours such as grooming)

The cat's primary response to fear is "flight" (avoidance or escape), but they will resort to aggression when escape is impossible in an attempt to drive the fear-eliciting stimulus away. Freezing tends to occur when either flight or fight are impossible, or as the animal evaluates its best option. A cat that is "frozen" but showing signs of stress can launch a sudden attack. Fiddling about may be a form of "self-distraction" in an otherwise inescapable situation of stress, but it may also have some value in diffusing tension in frustration and intraspecific conflict. Fear also potentiates the startle response, so fearful animals will react suddeny to unexpected stimuli and events.

The cat's primary response to fear is "flight" (avoidance or escape), but they will resort to [[Feline Aggression|aggression]] when escape is impossible in an attempt to drive the fear-eliciting stimulus away. Freezing tends to occur when either flight or fight are impossible, or as the animal evaluates its best option. A cat that is "frozen" but showing signs of stress can launch a sudden attack. Fiddling about may be a form of "self-distraction" in an otherwise inescapable situation of stress, but it may also have some value in diffusing tension in frustration and intraspecific conflict. Fear also potentiates the startle response, so fearful animals will react suddeny to unexpected stimuli and events.

==Effects of Fear and Anxiety==

==Effects of Fear and Anxiety==

Typical signs observed by owner include:

Typical signs observed by owners include:

* The cat being withdrawn, secretive and tending to hide.

* The cat being withdrawn, secretive and tending to hide

* A decrease in interest in social and object play.

* A decrease in interest in social and object play

* Reluctance to cross open spaces (e.e avoiding outdoors or crossing a room).

* Reluctance to cross open spaces (e.g. avoiding outdoors or crossing a room)

* Hiding under objects, or climbing to inaccessible high places.

* Hiding under objects, or climbing to inaccessible high places

* Avoiding contact with familiar people and other animals.

* Avoiding contact with familiar people and other animals

* "Jumpiness" (fear potentiated startle response).

* "Jumpiness" (fear potentiated startle response)

* Low-threshold flight response

* Low-threshold flight response

* Hypoglycaemia is associated with irritability and aggression.

* Hypoglycaemia is associated with irritability and aggression.

Sickness behaviour, which is mediated by the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Sickness behaviour includes lethargy, depression, anorexia, energy conservation, anhedonia, cognitive impairment, hyperalgesia, decreased social interaction and anxiety. Many of those are signs associated with emotional disorder. It is therefore wise to consider the possibility that behavioural change is associated with medical disorder.

Sickness behaviour, which is mediated by the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Sickness behaviour includes lethargy, depression, anorexia, energy conservation, anhedonia, cognitive impairment, hyperalgesia, decreased social interaction and anxiety. Many of these signs are associated with emotional disorder. It is therefore wise to consider the possibility that behavioural change is associated with medical disorder.

==The Effect of the Environment==

==The Effect of the Environment==

The first response of cats to [[Feline Fear and Stress|fearful situations]] is to escape, but the ability to do so is dependent upon [[Effect of Environment on Feline Behaviour|familiarity with the environment]] and the opportunities it provides for escape and avoidance behaviour. This is why success in treating fear-based problems is dependent upon the improving or modifying the environment to enable the cat to more easily escape and avoid fearful situations.

The first response of cats to [[Feline Fear and Stress|fearful situations]] is to escape, but the ability to do so is dependent upon [[Effect of Environment on Feline Behaviour|familiarity with the environment]] and the opportunities it provides for escape and avoidance behaviour. This is why success in treating fear-based problems is dependent upon the improving or modifying the environment to enable the cat to escape more easily and avoid fearful situations.

Anxiety can be reduced by making the environment more predictable and controllable for the cat. For example, the owner having more regular routines and patterns of interaction with the cat, and providing the cat with free access to resources such as food, water, latrine sites and outdoor access.  

Anxiety can be reduced by making the environment more '''predictable''' and '''controllable''' for the cat. For example, the owner maintaining a more regular routine and pattern of interaction with the cat, and providing the cat with free access to resources such as food, water, latrine sites and outdoor access.  

The [[Feline Territorial Behaviour#Core Territory|core zone]] of the cat’s territory is where it expects to be safe, as this is a place where it would not usually encounter unfamiliar cats. Recognition of the core territory is partially dependent upon [[Feline Communication Behaviour#Pheromones|pheromone odour signals]]. The cat expends a lot of time and energy placing [[Feline Communication Behaviour#Facial and Flank Marks|face and flank marks]] within the core territory area, not only to identify elements of the environment as familiar but also to create an appeasing environment for itself. Manipulation of the pheromone environment may also help to improve the environment for cats. This can be achieved by removing undesirable chemical signals (such as scent from previously resident cats, urine spray and claw marks), and the deposition of additional "facial and flank marks" by the owner. This can be done by harvesting facial and flank odour from the resident cats using a cloth, and then wiping this onto suitable places such as door posts and furniture. Synthetic pheromone analogues such as [[Pheromonotherapy - Cat|F3 (Feliway)]], can also be used to recreate or enhance core territory odours. This can trick the cat into perceiving the environment to be safe and secure.

The [[Feline Territorial Behaviour#Core Territory|core zone]] of the cat’s territory is where it expects to be safe, as this is a place where it would not usually encounter unfamiliar cats. Recognition of the core territory is partially dependent upon [[Feline Communication Behaviour#Pheromones|pheromone odour signals]]. The cat expends a lot of time and energy placing [[Feline Communication Behaviour#Facial and Flank Marks|face and flank marks]] within the core territory area, not only to identify elements of the environment as familiar but also to create an appeasing environment for itself. Manipulation of the pheromone environment may also help to improve the environment for cats. This can be achieved by removing undesirable chemical signals (such as scent from previously resident cats, [[Management of Items Contaminated by Urine or Faeces|urine spray]] and claw marks), and the deposition of additional "facial and flank marks" by the owner. This can be done by harvesting facial and flank odour from the resident cats using a cloth, and then wiping this onto suitable places such as door posts and furniture. Synthetic pheromone analogues such as [[Pheromonotherapy - Cat|F3 (Feliway)]], can also be used to recreate or enhance core territory odours. This can trick the cat into perceiving the environment to be safe and secure.

==Prevention==

==Prevention==