Changes

'''Phobic fear''' and '''panic''' are intense, abnormal and behaviourally disruptive variants of normal fear and anxiety. Panic and phobia are '''maladaptive'''; they lead to a reduction in the animal's ability to cope and perform normal behaviours.  

'''Phobic fear''' and '''panic''' are intense, abnormal and behaviourally disruptive variants of normal fear and anxiety. Panic and phobia are '''maladaptive'''; they lead to a reduction in the animal's ability to cope and perform normal behaviours.  

*'''Phobic fear''' is more intense and long lasting than normal fear. The animal reacts with a high-level of fear even to low level presentations of the fearful stimulus, and then takes a long time to recover from it. Phobic fears do not naturally extinguish with repeated exposure and in fact tend to worsen over time.

*'''Phobic fear''' is more intense and longer lasting than normal fear. The animal reacts with a high-level of fear even to low level presentations of the fearful stimulus, and then takes a long time to recover from it. Phobic fears do not naturally extinguish with repeated exposure and in fact tend to worsen over time.

*'''Panic''' attacks are discrete episodes of intense anxiety and arousal. In humans, panic is associated with tachycardia and [[Dyspnoea - Cat|dyspnoea]], which the patient may perceive to be severe enough to be life threatening. Animals are unable to report the feelings associated with panic, so it is assumed to occur based on signs. It tends to occur when an animal is unable to avoid or escape from a situation in which it is already anxious.  

*'''Panic''' attacks are discrete episodes of intense anxiety and arousal. In humans, panic is associated with tachycardia and [[Dyspnoea - Cat|dyspnoea]], which the patient may perceive to be severe enough to be life threatening. Animals are unable to report the feelings associated with panic, so it is assumed to occur based on signs. It tends to occur when an animal is unable to avoid or escape from a situation in which it is already anxious.  

Fear is a normal, adaptive experience that enables an individual to avoid harm.  

Fear is a normal, adaptive experience that enables an individual to avoid harm.  

'''Normal fear response behaviours observed include:

'''Normal fear response behaviours observed include:'''

* Facial and postural expressions of fear, directed at fear eliciting stimulus (ear & tail position, piloerection, facial expression, muscular rigidity, posture)

* Facial and postural expressions of fear, directed at fear eliciting stimuli (ear & tail position, piloerection, facial expression, muscular rigidity, posture)

* Sympathetic arousal (graded to threat)

* Sympathetic arousal (graded to threat)

* Muscle tremor

* Muscle tremor

When frightened, animals engage in a set of Species Specific Defence Reactions (SSDRs), known as "The Four Fs". These include:

'''When frightened, animals engage in a set of Species Specific Defence Reactions (SSDRs), known as "The Four Fs". These include:'''

* Fight

* Fight

* Flight

* Flight

==Effects of Fear and Anxiety==

==Effects of Fear and Anxiety==

Typical signs observed by owners include:

'''Typical signs observed by owners include:'''

* The cat being withdrawn, secretive and tending to hide

* The cat being withdrawn, secretive and tending to hide

* A decrease in interest in social and object play

* A decrease in interest in social and object play

* Low-threshold flight response

* Low-threshold flight response

Behavioural problems relating to fear and anxiety include:

'''Behavioural problems relating to fear and anxiety include:'''

* [[Indoor Marking - Cat|Indoor marking]] behaviours, such as urine spraying

* [[Indoor Marking - Cat|Indoor marking]] behaviours, such as urine spraying

* [[Housesoiling - Cat|Loss of house training]], due to some fearful association with the latrine location

* [[Housesoiling - Cat|Loss of house training]], due to some fearful association with the latrine location

==Potential Causes of Emotional Problems==

==Potential Causes of Emotional Problems==

Potential causes of feline fears, phobias and anxiety-related problems include:

'''Potential causes of feline fears, phobias and anxiety-related problems include:'''

* A lack of appropriate socialisation and habituation

* A lack of appropriate socialisation and habituation

* Traumatic experiences

* Traumatic experiences

* Unintentional owner reinforcement of fearful responses

* Unintentional owner reinforcement of fearful responses

In the veterinary context:

'''In the veterinary context:'''

* [[:Category:Cardiac Diseases - Cat|Cardiac]] and [[:Category:Respiratory Diseases - Cat|pulmonary]] disease are recognised as potential maintaining factors for anxiety.

* [[:Category:Cardiac Diseases - Cat|Cardiac]] and [[:Category:Respiratory Diseases - Cat|pulmonary]] disease are recognised as potential maintaining factors for anxiety.

* [[Hypothyroidism]] has been associated with anxiety and compulsive behaviour.

* [[Hypothyroidism]] has been associated with anxiety and compulsive behaviour.

* Pain and fear are associated increased self-defensiveness.

* Pain and fear are associated with increased self-defensiveness.

* [[Hyperthyroidism]] causes many behavioural changes including increased irritability and aggressiveness.

* [[Hyperthyroidism]] causes many behavioural changes including increased irritability and aggressiveness.

* Any form of debilitation tends to increase self-defensiveness and aggression.

* Any form of debilitation tends to increase self-defensiveness and aggression.

==The Effect of the Environment==

==The Effect of the Environment==

The first response of cats to [[Feline Fear and Stress|fearful situations]] is to escape, but the ability to do so is dependent upon [[Effect of Environment on Feline Behaviour|familiarity with the environment]] and the opportunities it provides for escape and avoidance behaviour. This is why success in treating fear-based problems is dependent upon the improving or modifying the environment to enable the cat to escape more easily and avoid fearful situations.

The first response of cats to [[Feline Fear and Stress|fearful situations]] is to escape, but the ability to do so is dependent upon [[Effect of Environment on Feline Behaviour|familiarity with the environment]] and the opportunities it provides for escape and avoidance behaviour. This is why success in treating fear-based problems is dependent upon improving or modifying the environment to enable the cat to escape more easily and avoid fearful situations.

Anxiety can be reduced by making the environment more '''predictable''' and '''controllable''' for the cat. For example, the owner maintaining a more regular routine and pattern of interaction with the cat, and providing the cat with free access to resources such as food, water, latrine sites and outdoor access.  

Anxiety can be reduced by making the environment more '''predictable''' and '''controllable''' for the cat. For example, the owner maintaining a more regular routine and pattern of interaction with the cat, and providing the cat with free access to resources such as food, water, latrine sites and outdoor access.  

As with dogs, the mainstay of prevention of emotional problems in cats is proper [[Feline Socialisation|socialisation]] and habituations to stimuli during the sensitive period of development. However, the [[Feline Socialisation|sensitive socialisation period]] in cats ends at around 6-7 weeks of age, when kittens are typically still with the breeder. It is therefore essential that breeders take primary responsibility for providing appropriate socialisation and habituation of very small kittens. To develop properly, kittens must meet a wide variety of people and other animals, and be exposed to a wide range of noises and everyday events that are typical of what they will experience in a family home. The greater the discrepancy between the rearing environment and the environment the cat will live in as an adult, the greater the risk of a behavioural problem.

As with dogs, the mainstay of prevention of emotional problems in cats is proper [[Feline Socialisation|socialisation]] and habituations to stimuli during the sensitive period of development. However, the [[Feline Socialisation|sensitive socialisation period]] in cats ends at around 6-7 weeks of age, when kittens are typically still with the breeder. It is therefore essential that breeders take primary responsibility for providing appropriate socialisation and habituation of very small kittens. To develop properly, kittens must meet a wide variety of people and other animals, and be exposed to a wide range of noises and everyday events that are typical of what they will experience in a family home. The greater the discrepancy between the rearing environment and the environment the cat will live in as an adult, the greater the risk of a behavioural problem.

A common set of guidelines for owners could include:

'''A common set of guidelines for owners could include:'''

* Only take kittens that have bold, sociable parents.

* Only take kittens that have bold, sociable parents.

* Avoid kittens that have been reared in isolation from normal domestic activities (such as in a cattery or shed).

* Avoid kittens that have been reared in isolation from normal domestic activities (such as in a cattery or shed).

However, it is sometimes necessary to repeatedly expose the cat to stimuli that it fears, in order to perform desensitisation and counterconditioning. It may therefore be necessary to prevent the cat from immediately escaping from the place where behavioural therapy takes place, so that the cat can gain appropriate experience. In such cases the cat must be given hiding places in the room, so that it has enough control to feel safe, but is still present to be exposed to the stimuli being used in behavioural therapy.

However, it is sometimes necessary to repeatedly expose the cat to stimuli that it fears, in order to perform desensitisation and counterconditioning. It may therefore be necessary to prevent the cat from immediately escaping from the place where behavioural therapy takes place, so that the cat can gain appropriate experience. In such cases the cat must be given hiding places in the room, so that it has enough control to feel safe, but is still present to be exposed to the stimuli being used in behavioural therapy.

A general approach to the treatment of behavioural problems involving fear would be as follows:

'''A general approach to the treatment of behavioural problems involving fear would be as follows:'''

:1) '''Alter the cat's environment''', so that escape and avoidance behaviours are supported, and in all aspects of its life the cat has control over access to resources. This reduces general anxiety and stress, and supports behavioural therapy. In many cases, this is the most important aspect of treatment.

:1) '''Alter the cat's environment''', so that escape and avoidance behaviours are supported, and in all aspects of its life the cat has control over access to resources. This reduces general anxiety and stress, and supports behavioural therapy. In many cases, this is the most important aspect of treatment.

:2) '''Behaviour modification''' techniques can be used to provide the cat with positive experiences that reduce fear and increase its perception of coping. Examples include desensitisation and counterconditioning. Desensitisation involves repeated exposure to a previously fearful stimulus at below the threshold that elicits a fear response. An example might be exposing the cat to the presence of people at beyond its flight distance. Counterconditioning involves the creation of an association between a previously fearful stimulus and an appetitive stimulus (such as food or play). By repeatedly pairing the fearful stimulus with food, for example, the cat's emotional response is changed. Selecting appetitive stimuli that are of sufficient value to override even a mild fear response can be difficult in cats, and so it can be difficult to keep cats in the vicinity of the fear-inducing stimulus during processes such as counterconditioning. Both of these methods of controlled exposure must be performed carefully if flooding is to be avoided. Flooding involves sustained exposure to a fearful stimulus, at a level that elicits fear, until the animal ceases to respond to it. In flooding, responding ceases when the animal becomes physically and psychologically fatigued, which has been shown to intensify emotional responses, potentially leading to phobia and panic. Flooding is no longer a method used in veterinary behavioural therapy. For further information on practical aspects of behavioural therapy for fear problems see the problem-specific information linked below.  

:2) '''Behaviour modification''' techniques can be used to provide the cat with positive experiences that reduce fear and increase its perception of coping. Examples include desensitisation and counterconditioning. '''Desensitisation''' involves repeated exposure to a previously fearful stimulus below the threshold that elicits a fear response. An example might be exposing the cat to the presence of people beyond its flight distance. Counterconditioning involves the creation of an association between a previously fearful stimulus and an appetitive stimulus (such as food or play). By repeatedly pairing the fearful stimulus with food, for example, the cat's emotional response is changed. Selecting appetitive stimuli that are of sufficient value to override even a mild fear response can be difficult in cats, so it can be difficult to keep cats in the vicinity of the fear-inducing stimulus during processes such as counterconditioning. Both of these methods of controlled exposure must be performed carefully if flooding is to be avoided. '''Flooding''' involves sustained exposure to a fearful stimulus, at a level that elicits fear, until the animal ceases to respond to it. In flooding, responding ceases when the animal becomes physically and psychologically fatigued, which has been shown to intensify emotional responses, potentially leading to phobia and panic. Flooding is no longer a method used in veterinary behavioural therapy. For further information on practical aspects of behavioural therapy for fear problems see the problem-specific information linked below.  

:3) '''Psychoactive medication''' may be necessary to reduce anxiety or fear to manageable levels. For cats that show high levels of fear or anxiety, changes to the environment may not be effective as the cat is unable to experience them (it remains hidden or is so inhibited that it does not explore its environment). For some cats, the range fearful stimuli is very broad or the stimuli are unidentifiable or unavoidable. In these cases, and for the animal's welfare, psychoactive medication is sometimes prescribed to facilitate adaptation to the environment and response to behavioural therapy.

:3) '''Psychoactive medication''' may be necessary to reduce anxiety or fear to manageable levels. For cats that show high levels of fear or anxiety, changes to the environment may not be effective as the cat is unable to experience them (it remains hidden or is so inhibited that it does not explore its environment). For some cats, the range of fearful stimuli is very broad or the stimuli are unidentifiable or unavoidable. In these cases, and for the animal's welfare, psychoactive medication is sometimes prescribed to facilitate adaptation to the environment and response to behavioural therapy.

:4) The '''owner's reaction''' may need to be modified. Owners may unintentionally add to the cat's distress by mishandling it, often by trying to restrain the cat so that it does not escape. This is commonplace when the fear is of unfamiliar people or animals; owners will often hold a cat whilst allowing a visitor to pet it. Cats will appear to tolerate this, because their secondary species defence reaction is to freeze. However, the cat remains intensely fearful, and may attempt to attack the person restraining it, in order to escape. Owners are often surprised that cats handled in this way become less, rather than more, tolerant of visitors. Owner reinforcement of fear and anxiety should also be avoided, but this is a less common problem. However, some owners will use punishment to control cat's behaviour; scolding a cat for eliminating in an inappropriate location, for example. This merely increases stress for the cat and increase the likelihood that it will become secretive, avoidant and mistrustful of its owners.  

:4) The '''owner's reaction''' may need to be modified. Owners may unintentionally add to the cat's distress by mishandling it, often by trying to restrain the cat so that it does not escape. This is commonplace when the fear is of unfamiliar people or animals; owners will often hold a cat whilst allowing a visitor to pet it. Cats will appear to tolerate this, because their secondary species defence reaction is to freeze. However, the cat remains intensely fearful, and may attempt to attack the person restraining it, in order to escape. Owners are often surprised that cats handled in this way become less, rather than more, tolerant of visitors. Owner reinforcement of fear and anxiety should also be avoided, but this is a less common problem. However, some owners will use punishment to control a cat's behaviour; scolding a cat for eliminating in an inappropriate location, for example. This merely increases stress for the cat and increases the likelihood that it will become secretive, avoidant and mistrustful of its owners.  

[[Category:To Do - Behaviour References]]

[[Category:To Do - Behaviour References]]

[[Category:JBowen reviewed]]

[[Category:JBowen reviewed]]