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==1. What is Chloride?==

==What is Chloride?==

Chloride is the ionised form of the element chlorine and is the principal anion (negative ion) in extracellular fluids, where it is usually combined with the sodium cation (positive ion) to form sodium chloride (common salt). The approximate concentration of salt in blood is 0.9%.

Chloride is the ionised form of the element chlorine and is the principal anion (negative ion) in extracellular fluids, where it is usually combined with the sodium cation (positive ion) to form sodium chloride (common salt). The approximate concentration of salt in blood is 0.9%.

==2. Why is it Important?==

==Why is it Important?==

The main function of chloride is in '''maintaining acid-base balance''' and '''contributing to the osmotic pressure found in extracellular fluids'''.

The main function of chloride is in '''maintaining acid-base balance''' and '''contributing to the osmotic pressure found in extracellular fluids'''.

==3. Roles in the Body==

==Roles in the Body==

Chloride metabolism is very closely linked to sodium metabolism and factors that influence sodium balance also tend to have the same effect on chloride <span style="color:red">[Link to WikiVet Sodium]</span>. Chloride is necessary to create a low pH (acid conditions) within the stomach, which is required for proteolysis and also provides some protection against bacterial colonisation. Stomach acidity is maintained by enhanced chloride secretion and increased sodium absorption.

Chloride metabolism is very closely linked to sodium metabolism and factors that influence sodium balance also tend to have the same effect on chloride <span style="color:red">[Link to WikiVet Sodium]</span>. Chloride is necessary to create a low pH (acid conditions) within the stomach, which is required for proteolysis and also provides some protection against bacterial colonisation. Stomach acidity is maintained by enhanced chloride secretion and increased sodium absorption.

==4. Consequences of Chloride Deficiency==

==Consequences of Chloride Deficiency==

===Dog:===   

===Dog:===   

Signs of chloride deficiency in cats are similar to those seen in dogs and result primarily from an associated secondary potassium deficiency.  These signs were seen in kittens fed diets containing up to 0.07% chloride on a DM basis. Kittens fed diets with chloride concentrations of 0.1% DM or higher did not develop any signs associated with deficiency<ref>Yu, S, Morris, J (1999). “Chloride requirement of kittens for growth is less than current recommendations”. J. Nutr. 129:1909-1914.</ref>.   

Signs of chloride deficiency in cats are similar to those seen in dogs and result primarily from an associated secondary potassium deficiency.  These signs were seen in kittens fed diets containing up to 0.07% chloride on a DM basis. Kittens fed diets with chloride concentrations of 0.1% DM or higher did not develop any signs associated with deficiency<ref>Yu, S, Morris, J (1999). “Chloride requirement of kittens for growth is less than current recommendations”. J. Nutr. 129:1909-1914.</ref>.   

==5. Toxicity==

==Toxicity==

===Dog:===   

===Dog:===   

Feeding chloride at dietary contents of 1.1% DM to kittens or 1.2% DM to adult cats as the calcium salt did not result in adverse effects<ref>Pastoor, F, Van’t Klooster, AT, Beynen, A (1994). “Calcium chloride as urinary acidifier in relation to its potential use in the prevention of struvite urolithiasis in the cat”. Vet. Q. 16(suppl.):37S-38S.</ref><ref>Pastoor, F, Opitz, R, Van’t Klooster, AT, Beynen, A (1994). “Substitution of dietary calcium chloride for calcium carbonate reduces urinary pH and urinary phosphorus excretion in adult cats”. Vet. Q. 16:157-160.</ref>. However, negative calcium and potassium balances were reported by Ching et al.<ref>Ching, S, Fettman, M, Hamar, D, Nagode, LA, Smith, K (1989). “The effect of chronic dietary acidification using ammonium chloride on acid-base and mineral metabolism in the adult cat”. J. Nutr. 119:902-915.</ref> in adult cats fed a diet with a chloride content of 1.6% DM for five months. This value is substantially lower than the theoretical acceptable chloride content for dogs shown above. Nevertheless, these cats received the increased chloride mainly as the ammonium salt, which produces a greater degree of metabolic acidosis than occurs with calcium or sodium salts. This may have resulted in the adverse effects on calcium and potassium balances. It is clear, therefore, that the toxicity of excessive chloride in the diet depends crucially on the mineral salt that is delivering the increased amount. If the dietary chloride is mainly in the form of neutral salts (such as sodium), then the acceptable value for the dog will also be applicable to cats, since the acceptable dietary sodium content for cats is similar to that for dogs <span style="color:red">[Link to WikiVet Sodium]</span>.

Feeding chloride at dietary contents of 1.1% DM to kittens or 1.2% DM to adult cats as the calcium salt did not result in adverse effects<ref>Pastoor, F, Van’t Klooster, AT, Beynen, A (1994). “Calcium chloride as urinary acidifier in relation to its potential use in the prevention of struvite urolithiasis in the cat”. Vet. Q. 16(suppl.):37S-38S.</ref><ref>Pastoor, F, Opitz, R, Van’t Klooster, AT, Beynen, A (1994). “Substitution of dietary calcium chloride for calcium carbonate reduces urinary pH and urinary phosphorus excretion in adult cats”. Vet. Q. 16:157-160.</ref>. However, negative calcium and potassium balances were reported by Ching et al.<ref>Ching, S, Fettman, M, Hamar, D, Nagode, LA, Smith, K (1989). “The effect of chronic dietary acidification using ammonium chloride on acid-base and mineral metabolism in the adult cat”. J. Nutr. 119:902-915.</ref> in adult cats fed a diet with a chloride content of 1.6% DM for five months. This value is substantially lower than the theoretical acceptable chloride content for dogs shown above. Nevertheless, these cats received the increased chloride mainly as the ammonium salt, which produces a greater degree of metabolic acidosis than occurs with calcium or sodium salts. This may have resulted in the adverse effects on calcium and potassium balances. It is clear, therefore, that the toxicity of excessive chloride in the diet depends crucially on the mineral salt that is delivering the increased amount. If the dietary chloride is mainly in the form of neutral salts (such as sodium), then the acceptable value for the dog will also be applicable to cats, since the acceptable dietary sodium content for cats is similar to that for dogs <span style="color:red">[Link to WikiVet Sodium]</span>.

==6. Dietary Sources==

==Dietary Sources==

The best sources of chloride for dog and cat foods are animal products, including fish meals and meat meals, also milk and milk products.  Cereals contain limited amounts of chloride. In addition, the chloride salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium are commonly used to supplement manufactured dog and cat foods.

The best sources of chloride for dog and cat foods are animal products, including fish meals and meat meals, also milk and milk products.  Cereals contain limited amounts of chloride. In addition, the chloride salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium are commonly used to supplement manufactured dog and cat foods.