Changes

==Toxicity==

==Toxicity==

The sugar-alcohol, xylitol (used as a low glycaemic index sweetener in many human foods) is toxic to dogs and cats and ingestion can lead to severe hypoglycaemia, liver failure and death.17 No toxicity has been associated with high intake of other carbohydrates in otherwise healthy dogs and cats, though in animals with pre-existing diabetes mellitus increased intake of sugars and starches can contribute to post-prandial hyperglycaemia and increase insulin requirements.18,19

The sugar-alcohol, '''xylitol''' (used as a low glycaemic index sweetener in many human foods) '''is toxic to dogs and cats''' and ingestion can lead to severe hypoglycaemia, [[Liver Failure|liver failure]] and death.<ref>Xia Z, ''et al.'' (2009)''' Experimental acute toxicity of xylitol in dogs.''''' J Vet Pharmacol Ther ''2009;32:465-469.</ref> No toxicity has been associated with high intake of other carbohydrates in otherwise healthy dogs and cats, though in animals with pre-existing diabetes mellitus increased intake of sugars and starches can contribute to post-prandial hyperglycaemia and increase [[insulin]] requirements.<ref>Bennett N, ''et al.'' (2006)''' Comparison of a low carbohydrate-low fiber diet and a moderate carbohydrate-high fiber diet in the management of feline diabetes mellitus. '''''J Feline Med Surg ''2006;8:73-84.</ref><ref>Elliot KF, ''et al.'' (2012)''' A diet lower in digestible carbohydrate results in lower postprandial glucose concentrations compared with a traditional canine diabetes diet and an adult maintenance diet in healthy dogs.''''' Res Vet Sci'' 2012;93:288-295.</ref>

Excessive intake of non-absorbable carbohydrates (both fermentable and non-fermentable dietary fibres) can increase stool bulk and slow gastrointestinal transit time.20,21 This may potentially result in constipation in healthy dogs and cats or worsening dysmotility in animals with underlying intestinal disease.  

 

Undigested disaccharides and starches can act as osmotic agents drawing water into the intestinal lumen and can be fermented by intestinal bacteria.22,23 Maldigestion and malabsorption of dietary carbohydrate (specifically starch) may be a feature of feline inflammatory bowel disease.24

Excessive intake of non-absorbable carbohydrates (both fermentable and non-fermentable dietary fibres) can increase stool bulk and slow gastrointestinal transit time.<ref>Eastwood MA. (1992) '''The physiologic effects of dietary fiber: An update. '''''Annu Rev Nutr ''1992;12:19-35.</ref><ref>Lewis LD, ''et al''. (1994)''' Stool characteristics, transit time, and nutrient digestibility in dogs fed different fiber sources.''''' J Nutr ''1994;124:2716S-2718S.</ref> This may potentially result in constipation in healthy dogs and cats or worsening dysmotility in animals with underlying intestinal disease.  

Dietary Sources

 

Dietary carbohydrates (both absorbable and non-absorbable) are primarily found in as fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, and pulses (i.e., legumes). Animal sourced carbohydrates (glycogen) are also found in muscle and liver.  

Undigested disaccharides and [[Starch - Nutrition|starches]] can act as osmotic agents drawing water into the intestinal lumen and can be fermented by intestinal bacteria.<ref>Washabau RJ,'' et al.'' (1986)''' Evaluation of intestinal carbohydrate malabsorption by pulmonary hydrogen gas excretion.''''' AJVR ''1986;47:1402-1406.</ref><ref>Muir P, ''et al. '' (1991) '''Evaluation of carbohydrate malassimilation and intestinal transit time in cats by measurement of breath hydrogen excretion. '''''AJVR'' 1991;52:1104-1109.</ref> Maldigestion and malabsorption of dietary carbohydrate (specifically starch) may be a feature of feline inflammatory bowel disease.<ref>Ugarte C, ''et al.'' (2004)''' Carbohydrate malabsorption is a feature of feline [[Inflammatory Bowel Disease|inflammatory bowel disease]] but does not increase clinical gastrointestinal signs. '''''J Nutr'' 2004;134:2068S–2071S.</ref>

Diagnosing Carbohydrate Deficiency

 

If low to absent carbohydrate intake with insufficient hepatic gluconeogenesis, clinical signs of hypoglycemia can occur (such as lethargy and seizures). Blood glucose concentrations below the normal laboratory reference interval will be seen on serum biochemistry profiles.  

==Dietary Sources==

Animals consuming inadequate dietary fibre may exhibit signs of colitis (e.g., tenesmus, hematochezia, mucousy loose stool, increased frequency of defecation), that resolves with addition of fibre to the diet.

Dietary carbohydrates (both absorbable and non-absorbable) are primarily found in as '''fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, and pulses '''(i.e., legumes). Animal sourced carbohydrates (glycogen) are also found in '''muscle and liver'''.  

 

==Diagnosing Carbohydrate Deficiency==

If there is low to absent carbohydrate intake with insufficient hepatic gluconeogenesis, clinical signs of hypoglycemia can occur (such as lethargy and seizures). Blood glucose concentrations below the normal laboratory reference interval will be seen on serum biochemistry profiles.  

 

Animals consuming inadequate dietary fibre may exhibit signs of colitis (e.g. tenesmus, hematochezia, mucousy loose stool, increased frequency of defecation), that resolves with addition of fibre to the diet.

==References==

==References==

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