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==What is Starch?==

==What is Starch?==

Starches are non-structural [[Nutrition Glossary#Polysaccharides|polysaccharides]] composed of individual monosaccharide sugars linked in α-1,4 glycoside linkage; and are present in both plant and animals<ref>National Research Council (NRC). Carbohydrates and Fiber. In Nutrient Requirements for Dogs and Cats. 2006 Washington, DC: National Academies Press p.49-80.</ref>. Amylose or amylopectin are the storage forms of monosaccharide plant sugars produced by photosynthesis; glycogen is the form of starch found in animal muscle and liver tissue. Maltodextrin is a form of synthesized starch that is used in human food production. Starches that are resistant to degradation by mammalian enzymes (referred to as resistant starches) can be formed during the cooking process<ref>Berry CS. Resistant starch: Formation and measurement of starch that survives exhaustive digestion with amylolytic enzymes during determination of dietary fiber. J Cereal Sci 1986;4:301-304.</ref>.

Starches are non-structural [[Nutrition Glossary#Polysaccharides|polysaccharides]] composed of individual '''monosaccharide sugars linked in α-1,4 glycoside linkage'''; and are present in both plant and animals<ref>National Research Council (NRC). Carbohydrates and Fiber. In Nutrient Requirements for Dogs and Cats. 2006 Washington, DC: National Academies Press p.49-80.</ref>. Amylose or amylopectin are the storage forms of monosaccharide plant sugars produced by photosynthesis; glycogen is the form of starch found in animal muscle and liver tissue. Maltodextrin is a form of synthesized starch that is used in human food production. Starches that are resistant to degradation by mammalian enzymes (referred to as resistant starches) can be formed during the cooking process<ref>Berry CS. Resistant starch: Formation and measurement of starch that survives exhaustive digestion with amylolytic enzymes during determination of dietary fiber. J Cereal Sci 1986;4:301-304.</ref>.

==Why is it Important?==

==Why is it Important?==

Dietary starches are readily broken down into their monosaccharide constitutes in both dogs and cats and can contribute to a rise in post-prandial blood glucose concentrations<ref name="Hewson">Hewson-Hughes AK, et al. The effect of dietary starch level on postprandial glucose and insulin concentrations in cats and dogs. Br J Nutr 2011;106:S105-S109.</ref>. Once absorbed, the monosaccharide sugar glucose is available for immediate use by brain and other tissues, while [[Amino Acids Overview - Nutrition|gluconeogenic amino acids]] from [[Protein - Nutrition|protein]] must first be converted to glucose via hepatic gluconeogenesis. Starch is not essential dietary nutrient, but is required for production of dry pet foods.

Dietary starches are readily broken down into their monosaccharide constitutes in both dogs and cats and can contribute to a rise in post-prandial blood glucose concentrations<ref name="Hewson">Hewson-Hughes AK, et al. The effect of dietary starch level on postprandial glucose and insulin concentrations in cats and dogs. Br J Nutr 2011;106:S105-S109.</ref>. Once absorbed, the monosaccharide sugar glucose is available for immediate use by brain and other tissues, while [[Amino Acids Overview - Nutrition|gluconeogenic amino acids]] from [[Protein - Nutrition|protein]] must first be converted to glucose via hepatic gluconeogenesis. '''Starch is not an essential dietary nutrient, but is required for production of dry pet foods'''.

==Roles in the Body==

==Roles in the Body==

Starch is the storage forms of carbohydrate energy found in plant and animal tissues. It can be readily hydrolysed by digestive enzymes to release free monosaccharide molecules that can absorbed by both dogs and cats, though cats appear to have a more delayed response relative to dogs<ref name="Hewson"/><ref>de-Oliveira  LD, et al. Effects of six carbohydrate sources on diet digestibility and postprandial glucose and insulin responses in cats. J Anim Sci 2008. 86:2237–2246</ref>. Glucose absorbed from the diet can be used directly in intermediate metabolism (ATP production) or to synthesise glycogen and fatty acid<ref>Ebiner JR, et al. Comparison of carbohydrate utilization in man using indirect calorimetry and mass spectrometry after oral load of 100 g naturally-labelled (13C) glucose. Br J Nutr 1979;41:419-429.</ref><ref>Flatt JP, et al. Effects of dietary fat on postprandial substrate oxidation and on carbohydrate and fat balances. J Clin Invest 1985;76:1019-1024.</ref>. Resistant starches are not hydrolysed by pancreatic amylases and instead act like fermentable fibres in the colonic lumen<ref>Goudez R, et al. Influence of different levels and sources of resistant starch on faecal quality of dogs of various body sizes. Br J Nutr 2011;106:S111-S215.</ref>.

'''Starch is the storage form of carbohydrate energy found in plant and animal tissues'''. It can be readily hydrolysed by digestive enzymes to release free monosaccharide molecules that can absorbed by both dogs and cats, though cats appear to have a more delayed response relative to dogs<ref name="Hewson"/><ref>de-Oliveira  LD, et al. Effects of six carbohydrate sources on diet digestibility and postprandial glucose and insulin responses in cats. J Anim Sci 2008. 86:2237–2246</ref>. Glucose absorbed from the diet can be used directly in intermediate metabolism (ATP production) or to synthesise glycogen and fatty acid<ref>Ebiner JR, et al. Comparison of carbohydrate utilization in man using indirect calorimetry and mass spectrometry after oral load of 100 g naturally-labelled (13C) glucose. Br J Nutr 1979;41:419-429.</ref><ref>Flatt JP, et al. Effects of dietary fat on postprandial substrate oxidation and on carbohydrate and fat balances. J Clin Invest 1985;76:1019-1024.</ref>. Resistant starches are not hydrolysed by pancreatic amylases and instead act like fermentable fibres in the colonic lumen<ref>Goudez R, et al. Influence of different levels and sources of resistant starch on faecal quality of dogs of various body sizes. Br J Nutr 2011;106:S111-S215.</ref>.

==Consequences of Starch Deficiency==

==Consequences of Starch Deficiency==

====Dogs:====

====Dogs:====

In otherwise healthy, non-reproductive adult dogs, there are no clinical consequences of feeding a starch-free diet. Reproductive female dogs fed completely carbohydrate-free diet without adequate protein intake during late gestation can become hypoglycaemic and ketotic, and experience an increase in foetal mortality and puppy death after whelping, though no adverse effect on growth of nursing puppies was seen<ref>Romsos DR, et al. Influence of low carbohydrate diet on performance of pregnant and lactating dogs. J Nutr 1981;111:678-689.</ref>. Small and toy breed puppies, are prone to developing hypoglycaemia, especially during times of physiological stress and when fed lower carbohydrate or poorly digestible carbohydrate diets<ref>Vroom MW and Slappendel RJ. Transient juvenile hypoglycaemia in a Yorkshire terrier and in a Chihuahua. Vet Q 1987;9:172-176.</ref>.

In otherwise healthy, non-reproductive adult dogs, there are no clinical consequences of feeding a starch-free diet. Reproductive female dogs fed completely carbohydrate-free diet without adequate protein intake during late gestation can become hypoglycaemic and [[Ketosis|ketotic]], and experience an increase in foetal mortality and puppy death after whelping, though no adverse effect on growth of nursing puppies was seen<ref>Romsos DR, et al. Influence of low carbohydrate diet on performance of pregnant and lactating dogs. J Nutr 1981;111:678-689.</ref>. Small and toy breed puppies, are prone to developing hypoglycaemia, especially during times of physiological stress and when fed lower [[Carbohydrate Overview - Nutrition|carbohydrate]] or poorly digestible [[Digestibility of Carbohydrates|carbohydrate diets]]<ref>Vroom MW and Slappendel RJ. Transient juvenile hypoglycaemia in a Yorkshire terrier and in a Chihuahua. Vet Q 1987;9:172-176.</ref>.

====Cats:====  

====Cats:====  

There are no clinical signs of feeding a carbohydrate-free diet to cats at any life-stage. Adult cats and growing kittens are able to maintain blood glucose concentration through hepatic gluconeogenesis<ref>Morris JG, et al. Carbohydrate digestion in the domestic cat (Felis catus). Br J Nutr 1977;37:365-373.</ref>.

There are no clinical signs of feeding a carbohydrate-free diet to cats at any life-stage. Adult cats and growing kittens are able to maintain blood glucose concentration through hepatic gluconeogenesis<ref>Morris JG, et al. Carbohydrate digestion in the domestic cat (Felis catus). Br J Nutr 1977;37:365-373.</ref>.

==Toxicity==

==Toxicity==

No toxicity has been associated with high intake of starch in otherwise healthy dogs and cats, though in animals with preexisting diabetes mellitus increased starch intake may contribute to post-prandial hyperglycaemia and increase insulin requirements<ref>Bennett N, et al. Comparison of a low carbohydrate-low fiber diet and a moderate carbohydrate-high fiber diet in the management of feline diabetes mellitus. J Feline Med Surg 2006;8:73-84.</ref><ref>Elliot KF, et al. A diet lower in digestible carbohydrate results in lower postprandial glucose concentrations compared with a traditional canine diabetes diet and an adult maintenance diet in healthy dogs. Res Vet Sci 2012;93:288-295.</ref>. Maldigestion and malabsorption of dietary starches may be a feature of feline inflammatory bowel disease<ref>Ugarte C, et al. Carbohydrate malabsorption is a feature of feline inflammatory bowel disease but does not increase clinical gastrointestinal signs. J Nutr 2004;134:2068S–2071S.</ref>.

No toxicity has been associated with high intake of starch in otherwise healthy dogs and cats, though in animals with preexisting [[Diabetes Mellitus|diabetes mellitus]] increased starch intake may contribute to post-prandial hyperglycaemia and increase [[insulin]] requirements<ref>Bennett N, et al. Comparison of a low carbohydrate-low fiber diet and a moderate carbohydrate-high fiber diet in the management of feline diabetes mellitus. J Feline Med Surg 2006;8:73-84.</ref><ref>Elliot KF, et al. A diet lower in digestible carbohydrate results in lower postprandial glucose concentrations compared with a traditional canine diabetes diet and an adult maintenance diet in healthy dogs. Res Vet Sci 2012;93:288-295.</ref>. Maldigestion and malabsorption of dietary starches may be a feature of feline [[Inflammatory Bowel Disease|inflammatory bowel disease]]<ref>Ugarte C, et al. Carbohydrate malabsorption is a feature of feline inflammatory bowel disease but does not increase clinical gastrointestinal signs. J Nutr 2004;134:2068S–2071S.</ref>.

==Dietary Sources==

==Dietary Sources==

[[Category:Carbohydrates]]

[[Category:Carbohydrates]]

[[Category:To Do - Nutrition]]

[[Category:To Do - Nutrition]]

[[Category:To Do - Nutrition GGP]]

[[Category:To Do - Nutrition preMars]]