Changes

[[Image:Ultrasoundsnake.jpg|150px|thumb|right|©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]

[[Image:Ultrasoundsnake.jpg|150px|thumb|right|©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]

==Ultrasonography==

==Ultrasonography==

Ultrasonography is a valuable diagnostic tool and principles for mammals can be applied to reptiles. The main advantage of ultrasonography is in the evaluation of soft tissue organs. The use of ultrasonography is dependent on familiarity with the equipment, knowledge of the normal anatomy of particular species and ability to interpret the images. Minimal information has been published on the use of ultrasound for the diagnosis of diseases, but diagnostic samples and scanning for neoplasia, abscesses and cysts can be routinely performed. Ecdysis interferes with ultrasonography.

Ultrasonography is a valuable diagnostic tool and principles for mammals can be applied to reptiles. The main advantage of ultrasonography is in the evaluation of soft tissue organs. The use of ultrasonography is dependent on familiarity with the equipment, knowledge of the normal anatomy of particular species and ability to interpret the images. Minimal information has been published on the use of ultrasound for the diagnosis of diseases, but diagnostic samples and scanning for neoplasia, abscesses and cysts can be routinely performed. [[Ecdysis|Ecdysis]] interferes with ultrasonography.

*Technique - Appropriate manual restraint is satisfactory for examining many lizards and snakes but chemical restraint may be necessary. 7.5 and 10 MHz transducers with stand-off for suitable resolution are used in small reptiles and 5 and 3.5MHz transducers for larger reptiles.  The transducer (plus liberal amounts of aqueous gel) is positioned against the ventral scales. Intercostal placement is possible in large species. Initially the heart is located and the chambers and valves can be visualised. Moving caudally the liver is found as a hyperechoic organ. The stomach then spleen, pancreas and gall bladder are located caudal to the liver. Cranial to the cloaca gonads and kidneys can be found as hyperechoic structures.  

*Technique - Appropriate manual restraint is satisfactory for examining many lizards and snakes but chemical restraint may be necessary. 7.5 and 10 MHz transducers with stand-off for suitable resolution are used in small reptiles and 5 and 3.5MHz transducers for larger reptiles.  The transducer (plus liberal amounts of aqueous gel) is positioned against the ventral scales. Intercostal placement is possible in large species. Initially the heart is located and the chambers and valves can be visualised. Moving caudally the liver is found as a hyperechoic organ. The stomach then spleen, pancreas and gall bladder are located caudal to the liver. Cranial to the [[Cloaca|cloaca]], gonads and kidneys can be found as hyperechoic structures.  

*The fat body of boid snakes can complicate the imaging of some organs including the kidneys and reproductive tract.

*The fat body of boid snakes can complicate the imaging of some organs including the kidneys and reproductive tract.

==Echocardiography==

==Echocardiography==

Echocardiography is a very useful diagnostic aid for cardiac problems in species where there are well-described normals. It is non-invasive, identifies specific cardiac anatomy and quantifies cardiac function. Echocardiography can be used to evaluate heart valve motion and identify thrombi, pericardial effusion and structural defects such as stenosis and valvular disease. Presently normals for reptile species at specific temperatures are not well-described.  

Echocardiography is a very useful diagnostic aid for cardiac problems in species where there are well-described normals. It is non-invasive, identifies specific cardiac anatomy and quantifies cardiac function. Echocardiography can be used to evaluate heart valve motion and identify thrombi, pericardial effusion and structural defects such as stenosis and valvular disease. Presently normals for reptile species at specific temperatures are not well-described.