Changes

==Control==

==Control==

=== Vaccination===

=== Vaccination===

Most vaccines are killed (produced in cell culture and inactivated with formalin)<ref name="manual">''Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals'' found at http://www.oie.int/eng/normes/mmanual/A_00081.htm, accessed July 2010.</ref> and elicit significant increases in Ab titre after 3 days.<ref name="attenuated">Ferguson, J.A, Reeves, W.C, Milby, M.M, Hardy, J.L (1978) Study of homologous and heterologous antibody responses in California horses vaccinated with attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis vaccine (strain TC-83), ''Am J Vet Res'', 39:371-376.  In: Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>  Protective titres last for 6-8 months.<ref name="multiple">Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>  Some cross-protection is seen between the serotypes but not between Western and Eastern EEV.  Monovalent, divalent and trivalent vaccines are available but the response to monovalent VEE vaccination is decreased in horses previously vaccinated against WEE and EEE.  The current recommendation is to vaccinate susceptible horses annually in late spring or several months before the high risk season.  Biannual or triannual vaccination should be employed in regions where the vector season is prolonged.<ref name="multiple">Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref> Susceptible horses should also be vaccinated in the face of an outbreak.<ref name="multiple">Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>  Mares should be vaccinated one month prior to foaling to boost colostral-derived Ab<ref name="again">Merck & Co (2008) The Merck Veterinary Manual (Eighth Edition), Merial found at http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/100900.htm&word=Equine%2cencephalitis, accessed July 2010</ref>, which persists for 6-7 months.<ref name="repeat"> Ferguson, J.A, Reeves, W.C, Hardy, J.L (1979) Studies on immunity to alphaviruses in foals, ''Am J Vet Res'', 40:5-10.  In: Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>  Although foals can be vaccinated at any time, early vaccination should be followed by boosters at 6 months and at one year.  Vaccination does not interfere with the ELISA assay for VEE.<ref name="multiple">Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref> '''NOTE''': Formalin-treated preparations of virulent epizootic VEE virus should never be used in equids as residual virulent virus can result in severe illness.  Instead, the attenuated vaccine, strain TC-83<ref name="attenuated">Ferguson, J.A, Reeves, W.C, Milby, M.M, Hardy, J.L (1978) Study of homologous and heterologous antibody responses in California horses vaccinated with attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis vaccine (strain TC-83), ''Am J Vet Res'', 39:371-376.  In: Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>, or an inactivated preparation created from that strain should be used. <ref>Walton, T.E, Grayson, M.A (1989)Chapter 46, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. In: ''The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology'', Vol. 4, Monath T.P., ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 203-231.  In:''Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals'' found at http://www.oie.int/eng/normes/mmanual/A_00081.htm, accessed July 2010.</ref> '''''PRECAUTION'': human vaccination is recommended for vets in endemic areas'''.

Most vaccines are killed (produced in cell culture and inactivated with formalin)<ref name="manual">''Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals'' found at http://www.oie.int/eng/normes/mmanual/A_00081.htm, accessed July 2010.</ref> and elicit significant increases in Ab titre after 3 days.<ref name="attenuated">Ferguson, J.A, Reeves, W.C, Milby, M.M, Hardy, J.L (1978) Study of homologous and heterologous antibody responses in California horses vaccinated with attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis vaccine (strain TC-83), ''Am J Vet Res'', 39:371-376.  In: Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>  Protective titres last for 6-8 months.<ref name="multiple">Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>  Some cross-protection is seen between the serotypes but not between Western and Eastern EEV.<ref>Jochim, M.M, Barber, T.L (1974) Immune response of horses after simultaneous or sequential vaccination against eastern, Western and Venezuelan equine encephlaomyelitis, ''J Am Vet Med Assoc'', 165:621-625. In: Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref> Monovalent, divalent and trivalent vaccines are available but the response to monovalent VEE vaccination is decreased in horses previously vaccinated against WEE and EEE.<ref>Calisher, C.H, Sasso, D.R, Sather, G.E (1973) Possible evidence for interference with Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccination of equines by pre-existing antibody to eastern or western equine encephalitis virus, or both, ''Appl Microbiol'', 26:485-488. In: Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref> The current recommendation is to vaccinate susceptible horses annually in late spring or several months before the high risk season.<ref name="same">Pasquini, C, Pasquini S, Woods, P (2005)'''Volume 1: Guide to Equine Clinics''', third edition, p266, SUDZ publishing.</ref> Biannual or triannual vaccination should be employed in regions where the vector season is prolonged.<ref name="multiple">Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref> Susceptible horses should also be vaccinated in the face of an outbreak.<ref name="multiple">Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>  Mares should be vaccinated one month prior to foaling to boost colostral-derived Ab<ref name="again">Merck & Co (2008) The Merck Veterinary Manual (Eighth Edition), Merial found at http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/100900.htm&word=Equine%2cencephalitis, accessed July 2010</ref>, which persists for 6-7 months.<ref name="repeat"> Ferguson, J.A, Reeves, W.C, Hardy, J.L (1979) Studies on immunity to alphaviruses in foals, ''Am J Vet Res'', 40:5-10.  In: Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>  Although foals can be vaccinated at any time, early vaccination should be followed by boosters at 6 months and at one year.  Vaccination does not interfere with the ELISA assay for VEE.<ref name="multiple">Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref> '''NOTE''': Formalin-treated preparations of virulent epizootic VEE virus should never be used in equids as residual virulent virus can result in severe illness.  Instead, the attenuated vaccine, strain TC-83<ref name="attenuated">Ferguson, J.A, Reeves, W.C, Milby, M.M, Hardy, J.L (1978) Study of homologous and heterologous antibody responses in California horses vaccinated with attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis vaccine (strain TC-83), ''Am J Vet Res'', 39:371-376.  In: Bertone, J.J (2010) Viral Encephalitis in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), ''Saunders'', Chapter 12</ref>, or an inactivated preparation created from that strain should be used. <ref>Walton, T.E, Grayson, M.A (1989)Chapter 46, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. In: ''The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology'', Vol. 4, Monath T.P., ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 203-231.  In:''Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals'' found at http://www.oie.int/eng/normes/mmanual/A_00081.htm, accessed July 2010.</ref> '''''PRECAUTION'': human vaccination is recommended for vets in endemic areas'''.

===Vector control===

===Vector control===

<references/>

<references/>

[[Category:Horse]]

[[Category:Horse]]

[[Category:To_Do_-_Nina]]

[[Category:To_Do_-_Nina]]

[[Category:Expert_Review]]

[[Category:Expert_Review]]

[[Category:Zoonoses]]

[[Category:Zoonoses]]