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==Description==

==Description==

In the '''chest''', haemothorax may cause tachypnoea and dyspnoea if severe. Dullness will be evident on thoracic percussion if a pleural effusion has developed and the heart sounds will be muffled on auscultation.

In the '''chest''', haemothorax may cause tachypnoea and dyspnoea if severe. Dullness will be evident on thoracic percussion if a pleural effusion has developed and the heart sounds will be muffled on auscultation.

'''Pericardial effusions''' may be sufficiently severe to cause '''cardiac tamponade''' and right-sided heart failure. The heart sounds will be muffled on auscultation and there may be hepatojugular reflux, a jugular pulse or signs of left-sided forward failure.  Idiopathic haemorrhagic effusions do not usually clot and are therefore unlikely to result in restrictive pericarditis.

'''Pericardial effusions''' may be sufficiently severe to cause [[Cardiac Tamponade|'''cardiac tamponade''']] and [[Heart Failure, Right-Sided|right-sided heart failure]]. The heart sounds will be muffled on auscultation and there may be hepatojugular reflux, a jugular pulse or signs of left-sided forward failure.  Idiopathic haemorrhagic effusions do not usually clot and are therefore unlikely to result in restrictive [[Pericarditis|pericarditis]].

The loss of significant quantities of blood may cause '''pallor''', '''tachycardia and tachypnoea''', a '''haemic murmur''', '''collapse''' and severe '''exercise intolerance'''.

The loss of significant quantities of blood may cause '''pallor''', '''tachycardia and tachypnoea''', a '''haemic murmur''', '''collapse''' and severe '''exercise intolerance'''.

Signs of regeneration (increased mean cell volume (MCV) and polychromasia) would not be expected until 48-72 hours after the event in dogs.

Signs of regeneration (increased mean cell volume (MCV) and polychromasia) would not be expected until 48-72 hours after the event in dogs.

Clotting times and a buccal mucosal bleeding time can be measured for detection of coagulopathies or thrombocytopathia (if the number of platelets is known to be normal).  With acute rodenticide poisoning, the OSPT is often elevated initially because factor VII (part of the extrinsic pathway) has the shortest half-life of the vitamin K-dependent factors.  Blood samples may be sent to specialist laboratories for measurement of levels of clotting factors (VIII and IX), von Willebrand's factor and proteins present in the absence of vitamin K (PIVKAs).  Changes on a biochemical profile should indicate any severe hepatic disease and faecal samples can be collected for detection of ''A. vasorum'' if this is suspected.

Clotting times and a buccal mucosal bleeding time can be measured for detection of coagulopathies or thrombocytopathia (if the number of platelets is known to be normal).  With acute rodenticide poisoning, the OSPT is often elevated initially because factor VII (part of the extrinsic pathway) has the shortest half-life of the vitamin K-dependent factors.  Blood samples may be sent to specialist laboratories for measurement of levels of clotting factors (VIII and IX), von Willebrand's factor and proteins present in the absence of vitamin K (PIVKAs).  Changes on a biochemical profile should indicate any severe hepatic disease and faecal samples can be collected for detection of ''[[Angiostrongylus vasourum]]'' if this is suspected.

===Diagnostic Imaging===

===Diagnostic Imaging===

Effusions are easily diagnosed by '''ultrasonography''' and this modality may also be used to guide fine needle aspiration to obtain a sample of the fluid.  As blood clots, the development of a granular texture should become evident as the fluid is scanned.  Effusions also produce a distinctive pattern on '''plain radiograph'''s:

Effusions are easily diagnosed by '''ultrasonography''' and this modality may also be used to guide fine needle aspiration to obtain a sample of the fluid.  As blood clots, the development of a granular texture should become evident as the fluid is scanned.  Effusions also produce a distinctive pattern on '''plain radiographs''':

*With pericardial effusion, the heart may appear to be generally enlarged with a globular shape. There may be a crisp cardiac silhouette (as the heart is moving within a stationary bag of fluid) and a hypovascular lung pattern due to pulmonary underperfusion.

*With pericardial effusion, the heart may appear to be generally enlarged with a globular shape. There may be a crisp cardiac silhouette (as the heart is moving within a stationary bag of fluid) and a hypovascular lung pattern due to pulmonary underperfusion.

*With ascites, there is a loss of serosal detail due to the presence of fluid in the abdominal cavity. This appearance may also occur with large abdominal masses and in emaciated animals.  The shape, size and location of the spleen may be altered if it harbours a mass. If haemangiosarcoma is suspected, the heart should also be scanned as affected animals often have concurrent right atrial haemangiosarcomas.   

*With ascites, there is a loss of serosal detail due to the presence of fluid in the abdominal cavity. This appearance may also occur with large abdominal masses and in emaciated animals.  The shape, size and location of the spleen may be altered if it harbours a mass. If haemangiosarcoma is suspected, the heart should also be scanned as affected animals often have concurrent right atrial haemangiosarcomas.   

*With pleural effusions, the lung lobes are contracted and lobulation is evident. Areas of peripheral radio-opacity should be evident, especially peripherally in the chest.  There may be signs of hypovolaemia, including a hypovascular lung pattern and microcardia.

*With pleural effusions, the lung lobes are contracted and lobulation is evident. Areas of peripheral radio-opacity should be evident, especially peripherally in the chest.  There may be signs of hypovolaemia, including a hypovascular lung pattern and microcardia.

==Treatment==

==Treatment==

In a case with ongoing haemorrhage, the source of this should be identified and techniques applied to achieve haemostasis.  This may require an exploratory laporotomy and organ removal for bleeding abdominal masses.  Care should be taken with trauma patients as they will often have multiple injuries.  Animals with significant blood loss may require a transfusion of whole blood but the exact transfusion trigger depends on the chronicity and severity of the haemorrhage.

In a case with ongoing haemorrhage, the source of this should be identified and techniques applied to achieve haemostasis.  This may require an exploratory laparotomy and organ removal for bleeding abdominal masses.  Care should be taken with trauma patients as they will often have multiple injuries.  Animals with significant blood loss may require a transfusion of whole blood but the exact transfusion trigger depends on the chronicity and severity of the haemorrhage.

Coagulopathies are treated according to their cause.  Factor VIII and Von Willebrand's factor may be supplemented with cryoprecipitate whereas animals with rodenticide poisoning should receive regular injections of vitamin K and intensive monitoring.  Transfusions may be required if the bleeding cannot be controlled.

Coagulopathies are treated according to their cause.  Factor VIII and Von Willebrand's factor may be supplemented with cryoprecipitate whereas animals with rodenticide poisoning should receive regular injections of vitamin K and intensive monitoring.  Transfusions may be required if the bleeding cannot be controlled.

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