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|pagetype =Pathology

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===Rationale===

==Introduction==

Urine Analysis can be a quick and inexpensive method to determine abnormalities in a patient.

Urine Analysis can be a quick and inexpensive method to determine abnormalities in a patient.

===Techniques===

==Techniques==

 

==Gross Appearance==

===Gross Appearance===

==Specific Gravity==

===Specific Gravity===

Urine specific gravity (USG) is measured using a refractometer calibrated for veterinary use. It must additionally be calibrated on each use using water which must match the water line on the refractometer read out prior to measuring USG, as reftractometer measurement is sensative to room temperature. Adjustments are made using the screw on the top of the refratcometer - take care not to get this screw wet when cleaning the reftractometer.  

Urine specific gravity (USG) is measured using a refractometer calibrated for veterinary use. It must additionally be calibrated on each use using water which must match the water line on the refractometer read out prior to measuring USG, as reftractometer measurement is sensative to room temperature. Adjustments are made using the screw on the top of the refratcometer - take care not to get this screw wet when cleaning the reftractometer.  

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===Urine Dipsticks===

==Urinary Dipsticks==

====pH====

===pH===

In dogs and cats an acidc pH is normal.  In the ruminants and horses the opposite is true and the urine is alkali.  The pH does however vary with diet and medications as well as in pathological states so this needs to be accounted for.  The normal range is 5-9

In dogs and cats an acidc pH is normal.  In the ruminants and horses the opposite is true and the urine is alkali.  The pH does however vary with diet and medications as well as in pathological states so this needs to be accounted for.  The normal range is 5-9

====Protein====

===Protein===

It is not common to find protein in the urine of normal animals.  However it can be normal for small amounts to be found in the urine of dogs with a high specific gravity.  Therefore this needs to be taken into account.

It is not common to find protein in the urine of normal animals.  However it can be normal for small amounts to be found in the urine of dogs with a high specific gravity.  Therefore this needs to be taken into account.

====Glucose====

===Glucose===

The presence of glucose in the urine is termed glucosuria and occurs when the level of glucose reaches the [[Reabsorption and Secretion Along the Proximal Tubule - Anatomy & Physiology#Glucose|renal threshold]] for glucose reabsorption.  It is not normal to find glucose in the urine.

The presence of glucose in the urine is termed glucosuria and occurs when the level of glucose reaches the [[Reabsorption and Secretion Along the Proximal Tubule - Anatomy & Physiology#Glucose|renal threshold]] for glucose reabsorption.  It is not normal to find glucose in the urine.

====Ketones====

===Ketones===

It is not normal for ketones to be present in the urine and they are indicative of pathological states

It is not normal for ketones to be present in the urine and they are indicative of pathological states

====Bilirubin and Urobilinogen====

===Bilirubin and Urobilinogen===

Small amounts of bilirubin can be found in dogs with concentrated urine therefore this needs to be interpreted in light of the urine specific gravity. However as a rule it is not normal to find bilirubin in urine.

Small amounts of bilirubin can be found in dogs with concentrated urine therefore this needs to be interpreted in light of the urine specific gravity. However as a rule it is not normal to find bilirubin in urine.

Urobilinogen is formed from bilirubin in the intestine and small quantities are normally found in the urine.

Urobilinogen is formed from bilirubin in the intestine and small quantities are normally found in the urine.

====Blood====

===Blood===

The presence of blood in the urine is not normal and is usually related to a pathological state.

The presence of blood in the urine is not normal and is usually related to a pathological state.

===Microscopic Examination===

==Microscopic Examination==

=====Cellular Deposits=====

===Cellular Deposits===

*Epithlial cells

*Epithlial cells

**Renal

**Renal

**Sperm

**Sperm

**Artefacts

**Artefacts

=====Casts (Cylinduria)=====

===Casts (Cylinduria)===

*Hyaline

*Hyaline

*Waxy

*Waxy

*Artefacts

*Artefacts

**mucus threads

**mucus threads

=====Crystalline and Amorphous Deposits=====

===Crystalline and Amorphous Deposits===

*Calcium carbonate

*Calcium carbonate

*Struvite

*Struvite

*Ammonium Biurate

*Ammonium Biurate

====Culture and Sensitivity====

==Culture and Sensitivity==