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==Description==

==Introduction==

This term refers to the perforation of all layers of the oesophagus and the leakage of air and ingesta into the surrounding tissues.  The contents of the oesophagus are not sterile and bacteria are seeded into surrounding tissues when the oesophagus is ruptured. For most of its length, the oesophagus runs through the thoracic cavity within the mediastinum, meaning that ruptures in this location cause septic '''mediastinitis''' and '''pneumomediastinum'''. The mediastinum is continuous with the fascial planes of the neck and the spread of air and bacteria into this region leads to '''subcutaneous emphysema''' and '''cellulitis'''. It has been suggested that the spread of infection along fascial planes may be assisted by the motion of peristalsis or of pulsation in the carotid arteries. If the parietal pleural membrane (which lines the mediastinum) is also ruptured, infection and air can enter the pleural space (between the parietal and visceral pleurae), causing '''pyothorax''' and '''pneumothorax'''. If more air is drawn into the mediastinum or pleural cavity through the rupture during each inspiratory phase but not expelled during exhalation, a '''tension pneumothorax''' may develop, in which the contents of the thorax are gradually compressed by the accumulation of air. If infectious agents spread into the blood, there is a risk of systemic sepsis. Finally, if the perforation is caused by a sharp object in the region of the heart base, the great vessels arising from the heart may be lacerated causing '''fatal internal haemorrhage'''.

This term refers to the perforation of all layers of the oesophagus and the leakage of air and ingesta into the surrounding tissues.  The contents of the oesophagus are not sterile and bacteria are seeded into surrounding tissues when the oesophagus is ruptured. For most of its length, the oesophagus runs through the thoracic cavity within the mediastinum, meaning that ruptures in this location cause septic '''mediastinitis''' and '''pneumomediastinum'''. The mediastinum is continuous with the fascial planes of the neck and the spread of air and bacteria into this region leads to '''subcutaneous emphysema''' and '''cellulitis'''. It has been suggested that the spread of infection along fascial planes may be assisted by the motion of peristalsis or of pulsation in the carotid arteries. If the parietal pleural membrane (which lines the mediastinum) is also ruptured, infection and air can enter the pleural space (between the parietal and visceral pleurae), causing '''pyothorax''' and '''pneumothorax'''. If more air is drawn into the mediastinum or pleural cavity through the rupture during each inspiratory phase but not expelled during exhalation, a '''tension pneumothorax''' may develop, in which the contents of the thorax are gradually compressed by the accumulation of air. If infectious agents spread into the blood, there is a risk of systemic sepsis. Finally, if the perforation is caused by a sharp object in the region of the heart base, the great vessels arising from the heart may be lacerated causing '''fatal internal haemorrhage'''.

Perforation may occur when sharp [[Oesophageal Foreign Body|foreign bodies]] become lodged in the oesophagus or when attempts are made to remove these objects endoscopically or surgically. Ruptures may also occur when anastomotic sites dehisce after oesophagectomy (as performed for the treatment of [[Oesophageal Neoplasia|oesophageal neoplasia]].)

Perforation may occur when sharp [[Oesophageal Foreign Body|foreign bodies]] become lodged in the oesophagus or when attempts are made to remove these objects endoscopically or surgically. Ruptures may also occur when anastomotic sites dehisce after oesophagectomy (as performed for the treatment of [[Oesophageal Neoplasia|oesophageal neoplasia]].)

==Diagnosis==

==Diagnosis==

For a more complete description of oesophageal foreign bodies and their sequelae, see [[Oesophageal Foreign Body|here]]. The following sections refer specifically to the diagnosis and treatment of oesophageal ruptures.

For a more complete description of oesophageal foreign bodies and their sequelae, see [[Oesophageal Foreign Body]]. The following sections refer specifically to the diagnosis and treatment of oesophageal ruptures.

===Clinical Signs===

===Clinical Signs===

'''Plain radiographs''' of the chest may show:

'''Plain radiographs''' of the chest may show:

*'''Pleural effusion''' with contracture of the lung lobes and presence of radiodense material around and between lobes.

*'''Pleural effusion''' with contracture of the lung lobes and presence of radiodense material around and between lobes.

*'''Pneumothorax''' or '''tension pneumothorax'''. If the latter condition is unilateral, a dorso-ventral radiograph will show that the contents of the mediastinum are pushed to one side by the expansion of the lung field on the affected side.

*'''Pneumothorax''' or '''tension pneumothorax'''. If the latter condition is unilateral, a dorso-ventral radiograph will show that the contents of the mediastinum are pushed to one side by the expansion of the lung field on the affected side.

*'''Expansion of the mediastinum''', best assessed on a dorso-ventral radiograph where the mediastinum will appear to be significantly wider than the vertebral column.

*'''Expansion of the mediastinum''', best assessed on a dorso-ventral radiograph where the mediastinum will appear to be significantly wider than the vertebral column.

*'''Emphysema''' in the fascial planes of the neck.

*'''Emphysema''' in the fascial planes of the neck.

==Treatment==

==Treatment==

Animals that have developed a ruptured oesophagus have an extremely poor prognosis for survival and strong consideration should be given to euthanasia if the condition is diagnosed. If the condition is to be treated, referral to a specialist centre would be highly advisable. A possible treatment regime would include the following elements:

Animals that have developed a ruptured oesophagus have an extremely poor prognosis for survival and strong consideration should be given to euthanasia if the condition is diagnosed. If the condition is to be treated, referral to a specialist centre would be highly advisable. A possible treatment regime would include the following elements:

*Provision of '''oxygen''' by intra-nasal catheter, flow-by or mask.

*Provision of '''oxygen''' by intra-nasal catheter, flow-by or mask.

*'''Broad spectrum intra-venous antibiosis''' using bactericidal drugs. Samples should be obtained from the thorax for bacterial culture and sensitivity (including anaerobic culture) and a drug that treats anaerobic bacteria should probably be used from the outset.

*'''Broad spectrum intra-venous antibiosis''' using bactericidal drugs. Samples should be obtained from the thorax for bacterial culture and sensitivity (including anaerobic culture) and a drug that treats anaerobic bacteria should probably be used from the outset.

*'''Drainage of pleural effusion''' by thoracocentesis or, preferably, implantation of a thoracostomy tube since repeated drainage is likely to be required.   

*'''Drainage of pleural effusion''' by thoracocentesis or, preferably, implantation of a thoracostomy tube since repeated drainage is likely to be required.   

*Administration of '''intra-venous fluid therapy''' since the animal is likely to be inappetant and is likely to lose copious amounts of fluid into the exudates forming in the chest.

*Administration of '''intra-venous fluid therapy''' since the animal is likely to be inappetant and is likely to lose copious amounts of fluid into the exudates forming in the chest.

*'''Surgical repair of the rupture''' with repeated '''lavage of the pleural cavity and mediastinum''' when the animal is sufficiently stable.

*'''Surgical repair of the rupture''' with repeated '''lavage of the pleural cavity and mediastinum''' when the animal is sufficiently stable.

*Provision of '''analgesia''' and intensive care monitoring in the post-operative period. If thoracostomy tubes are implanted, these can be used to lavage the pleural space with sterile saline at regular intervals.

*Provision of '''analgesia''' and intensive care monitoring in the post-operative period. If thoracostomy tubes are implanted, these can be used to lavage the pleural space with sterile saline at regular intervals.

==Prognosis==

==Prognosis==

Oesophageal rupture and its sequelae will be fatal in the majority of patients.  

Oesophageal rupture and its sequelae will be fatal in the majority of patients.  

[[Category:Oesophagus_-_Pathology]]

[[Category:Oesophagus_-_Pathology]]

[[Category:Cat]][[Category:Dog]]

[[Category:Cat]][[Category:Dog]]

[[Category:To Do - Review]]

[[Category:Expert Review]]

[[Category:Oesophageal_Disorders_-_Horse]]

[[Category:Oesophageal_Disorders_-_Horse]]