Difference between revisions of "Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy"

Revision as of 16:22, 17 October 2012

Thoracic Limb

Shoulder Joint

The joint capsule attaches a very short distance from the periphery of the articular surfaces. The intertubercular (bicipital) bursa lies between the humeral tubercles, cushioning the bicipital tendon. The bursa and tendon are held in place by the transverse humeral retinaculum, running between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus.

Elbow Joint

The joint capsule attaches to the articular surface of the condyle, the periphery of the olecranon fossa and the articular cartilage of the trochlear notch of the ulna. It fuses with the collateral ligaments. Paired collateral ligaments attach the epicondyles to the tuberosities of the radius and ulna.

Carpal Joint

The carpal joint is a compound joint composed of:

The antebrachiocarpal joint between the radius/ulna and the proximal carpal bones

The middle carpal joint between the two rows of carpal bones

The carpometacarpal joint between the distal carpal bones and the proximal metacarpals

The joint is a synovial joint, comprising a common outer fibrous capsule and three inner synovial pouches, one for each joint. Collateral ligaments extend from the radius to the metacarpal bones on the medial and lateral aspect of the carpus. The carpal canal houses both the superficial and deep digital flexor tendon within a common synovial sheath.

Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint

The fetlock joint allows flexion and extension movements. This joint is associated with a pair of sesamoid bones on the palmar surface. Between the sesamoids in a groove lies articular cartilage which articulates with the sagittal ridge of metacarpal III. The joint capsule runs between all bones in the joint and attaches to the articular cartilage of the sesamoids. It has an extensive pouch under the extensor tendon continuing a quarter the length up the cannon bone. The collateral ligaments bind the metacarpal bone to the proximal phalanx, with a deep branch attaching to the sesamoid bone. The palmar/intersesamoidean ligament is a mass of fibrocartilage that embed the sesamoid bones. The palmar aspect of it forms a groove for the deep flexor tendon to run in. The collateral sesamoid ligaments connect the outer aspect of the sesamoids to the proximal phalanx and there is a distinct branch that attaches to the cannon bone. The distal sesamoid ligaments are a collection of ligaments that are very marked in the horse and connect the distal surface of the sesamoids to the palmar aspect of the phalanx. These ligaments include the short ligaments, cruciate ligaments, oblique ligament, straight ligament and the palmer annular ligament. The short ligaments connect the axial base of the sesamoids to the lateral/medial aspect on the palmar margin of the proximal phalanx. These are the deepest of the ligaments. The cruciate ligaments are paired ligaments from the base of the sesamoids that diagonally cross to attach to the proximal phalanx. It lies superficial to the short ligaments. The oblique ligament is a triangular shaped ligament, the base of which attaches to the sesamoids and their interconnecting ligament and the point attaches to the rough palmar aspect of the proximal phalanx. It is superficial to the cruciates. The straight ligament proximally attaches like the oblique but attaches as a flat band to the edge of the complementary fibrocartilage of the proximal end of the middle phalanx. Finally, the palmar annular ligament wraps around the sesamoids, flexor tendons and their associated sheaths.

Proximal Interphalangeal (Pastern) Joint

The pastern joint allows flexion and extension movements. The palmar border of the middle phalanx has a complementary fibrocartilage that extends the proximal articular surface of the middle phalanx. It is sometimes called the middle scutum as it provides a gliding surface for the deep digital flexor. The joint capsule is simple and attaches by the articular margins of the two phalanges. The collateral ligaments connect the distal end of the proximal phalanx to the proximal end of the middle phalanx. They lie in a vertical direction rather than along the bone axis. The fibres of the collateral sesamoid ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint run with it, attach to the middle phalanx and then continue on to their distal attachments. The palmar ligaments connect the palmar aspect of the distal half of the proximal phalanx to the complementary fibrocartilage of the middle phalanx. These restrict dorsiflexion of the joint. A proximal digital annular ligament wraps around the superficial surface of the flexor tendons and their sheaths at the level of the proximal phalanx. There is a distal one also exists that is attached to the proximal phalanx, it is superficially associated with the digital cushion and is connected to the ergot by the thin fibrous ligament of the ergot.

Distal Interphalangeal (Coffin) Joint

The coffin joint allows extension and slight flexion movements. The navicular bursa lies between the navicular bone and the deep flexor tendon. The joint capsule attaches to the articular periphery. There is a dorsal recess under the extensor tendons and a palmar one that runs to about half the height of the middle phalanx. It dips between the distal phalanx and sesamoid and bulges laterally where it is related to the collateral ligaments. The collateral ligaments connect the distal part of the middle phalanx to the sides of the proximal distal phalanx. The distal sesamoid ligaments connect the distal border of the navicular bone to the flexor surface of the distal phalanx. The collateral sesamoid ligaments are fibroelastic ligaments that attach to the proximal phalanx with the collateral ligaments of the pastern joint and insert to the proximal border of the navicular bone. The ungual/lateral cartilages have a series of ligaments going to the medial/lateral surfaces of the three phalanges and distal sesamoid. There is also a fibrous band connecting the inner surfaces of the cartilages by crossing the superficial aspect of the deep digital flexor tendon.

Pelvic Limb

Sacroiliac Joint

In horses the short branch of the dorsal sacroiliac ligaments connects the sacral tuberosity to the spinous processes of the sacrum. The sacrotuberous ligament is a broad sheet-like ligament, which extends between the transverse processes of the first caudal vertebrae and the dorsal border of ischium and ilium. In this ligament are the lesser and greater ischiatic foramen, these are present to allow for blood vessels, nerves and tendons.

Coxafemoral/Hip Joint

The horse has a limited range of hip movement compared to the dog. This is mainly restricted to flexion and extension and is a result of the conformation of its femoral head, intra-articular ligaments and a large muscle mass around the joint. The ligament of the femoral head extends from the acetabulum to the fovea on the femoral head. Unlike other species, the horse also has an extra ligament present in the joint; the accessory ligament. The accessory ligament arises from the tendon of insertion of the rectus abdominis muscle and to a lesser extent external abdominal oblique muscle as part of the prepubic tendon and inserts on the fovea. Both ligaments pass through acetabular notch.

Stifle Joint

Femorotibial Joint

The femorotibial joint is divided by menisci into upper and lower segments. These communicate through open centres of the menisci where the condyles of the femur and tibia are in contact. The menisci are fibrocartilaginous structures that act as shock absorbers, reducing concussion on the joint as well as incongruency of the articular surfaces. They are attached at the outer margins to the fibrous joint capsule and anchored at their ends mainly on the tibia, but also to the femur by one ligament. The joint is divided into medial and lateral sacs;both of which may communicate with the femoropatellar joint. The cruciate ligaments in the centre of the joint are important for stifle stability.

Femoropatellar Joint

The equine stifle has three patellar ligaments:

Middle Patellar Ligament

The middle patellar ligament connects the the cranial aspect of the patella apex to the tibial tuberosity. It has two associated bursae; one between the ligament and the groove on the tibial tuberosity and one between the proximal part of the ligament and the patella apex. It is palpable just proximal to the tibial plateau.

Lateral Patellar Ligament

The lateral patellar ligament attaches to the cranio-lateral aspect of the patella and to the lateral aspect of the tibial tuberosity. This arrangement is crucial for the equine 'stay' apparatus and provides a locking ability.

Medial Patellar Ligament

The medial patellar ligament connects the parapatellar fibrocartilage to the medial aspect of the tibial tuberosity.

Contraction of the quadriceps while in rest enables the patella to be hooked over the trochlea of the femur due to the binding loop formed by the patella, middle and medial patellar ligaments. The femeropatellar joint capsule sometimes communicates with the lateral femerotibial cavity and usually with the medial. No communication exists between the femorotibial joints.

Hock Joint

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-{{OpenPagesTop}}
+{{unfinished}}
-==[[Forelimb - Anatomy & Physiology|Thoracic Limb]]==
+==Thoracic Limb==
 ===Shoulder Joint===
-The shoulder joint is the articulation between the glenoid cavity of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Scapula|scapula]] and the head of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Humerus|humerus]]. In the horse, lateral and medial movements of this joint are impossible due to the shape of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Humerus|humeral]] head; movement is therefore limited to flexion and extension. The joint is strengthened by  the medial and lateral '''glenohumeral ligaments'''. There is also an additional '''coracohumeral ligament''' between the supraglenoid tubercle and the greater tubercle of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Humerus|humerus]].
-In the horse, there is no sheath surrounding the bicipital tendon; instead there is an '''intertubercular bursa'''. This bursa lies between the humeral tubercles, cushioning the bicipital tendon, but does not communicate with the cavity of the shoulder joint. The bursa and tendon are held in place by the '''transverse humeral retinaculum''', running between the greater and lesser tubercles of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Humerus|humerus]].
+The joint capsule attaches a very short distance from the periphery of the articular surfaces. The '''intertubercular (bicipital) bursa''' lies between the humeral tubercles, cushioning the '''bicipital tendon'''. The bursa and tendon are held in place by the '''transverse humeral retinaculum''', running between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus.
 ===Elbow Joint===
-The elbow joint is the articulation between the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Humerus|humeral]] condyle, trochlear notch of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Radius and Ulna|ulna]] and the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Radius and Ulna|radial head]]. The joint capsule attaches to the articular surface of the condyle, the periphery of the olecranon fossa and the articular cartilage of the trochlear notch of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Radius and Ulna|ulna]]. Ligaments of the elbow include:
-*'''Lateral (radial) collateral ligament''': Attaches to the lateral [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Humerus|humeral]] epicondyle, the caudal (ulnar) branch is absent in the horse.
+The joint capsule attaches to the articular surface of the condyle, the periphery of the olecranon fossa and the articular cartilage of the trochlear notch of the ulna. It fuses with the collateral ligaments. Paired '''collateral ligaments''' attach the epicondyles to the tuberosities of the radius and ulna.
-*'''Medial (ulnar) collateral ligament''': Attaches to the medial [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Humerus|humeral]] epicondyle and inserts on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Radius and Ulna|ulna]] and [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Radius and Ulna|radius]]. The cranial part of the ligament is the remnant of the ''pronator teres'' muscle in horses.
 ===Carpal Joint===
 The carpal joint is a compound joint composed of:
-:The '''antebrachiocarpal joint''' between the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Radius and Ulna|radius/ulna]] and the proximal [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Bones|carpal bones]]
+:The '''antebrachiocarpal joint''' between the radius/ulna and the proximal carpal bones
-:The '''middle carpal joint''' between the two rows of [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Bones|carpal bones]]
+:The '''middle carpal joint''' between the two rows of carpal bones
-:The '''carpometacarpal joint''' between the distal [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Bones|carpal bones]] and the proximal [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|metacarpals]]
+:The '''carpometacarpal joint''' between the distal carpal bones and the proximal metacarpals
-The joint is a synovial joint, comprising a common outer fibrous capsule and three inner synovial pouches, one for each joint. The fibrous joint capsule is strengthened by the '''extensor retinaculum''' on the dorsal aspect and the '''flexor retinaculum''' on the palmar aspect.  The '''carpal canal''' houses both the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|superficial and deep digital flexor tendon]] within a common synovial sheath.
+The joint is a synovial joint, comprising a common outer fibrous capsule and three inner synovial pouches, one for each joint. '''Collateral ligaments''' extend from the radius to the metacarpal bones on the medial and lateral aspect of the carpus. The '''carpal canal''' houses both the superficial and deep digital flexor tendon within a common synovial sheath.
-Ligaments supporting the [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Joint|carpus ]] include:
+====Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint====
-*'''Long lateral collateral ligament''': Attaches to the lateral styloid process of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Radius and Ulna|radius]], then divides into a superficial branch and two deep branches. The superficial branch attaches on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|fourth metacarpal]](lateral splint) and the two deep branches insert on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Bones|ulnar carpal]] and [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Bones|4th carpal]] bones.
+The fetlock joint allows flexion and extension movements. This joint is associated with a pair of sesamoid bones on the palmar surface. Between the sesamoids in a groove lies articular cartilage which articulates with the sagittal ridge of metacarpal III. The joint capsule runs between all bones in the joint and  attaches to the articular cartilage of the sesamoids. It has an extensive pouch under the extensor tendon continuing a quarter the length up the cannon bone. The '''collateral ligaments''' bind the metacarpal bone to the proximal phalanx, with a deep branch attaching to the sesamoid bone. The '''palmar/intersesamoidean ligament''' is a mass of fibrocartilage that embed the sesamoid bones. The palmar aspect of it forms a groove for the deep flexor tendon to run in. The '''collateral sesamoid ligaments''' connect the outer aspect of the sesamoids to the proximal phalanx and there is a distinct branch that attaches to the cannon bone. The '''distal sesamoid ligaments''' are a collection of ligaments that are very marked in the horse and connect the distal surface of the sesamoids to the palmar aspect of the phalanx. These ligaments include the '''short ligaments''', '''cruciate ligaments''', '''oblique ligament''', '''straight ligament''' and the '''palmer annular ligament'''. The '''short ligaments''' connect the axial base of the sesamoids to the lateral/medial aspect on the palmar margin of the proximal phalanx. These are the deepest of the ligaments. The '''cruciate ligaments''' are paired ligaments from the base of the sesamoids that diagonally cross to attach to the proximal phalanx. It lies superficial to the short ligaments. The '''oblique ligament''' is a triangular shaped ligament, the base of which attaches to the sesamoids and their interconnecting ligament and the point attaches to the rough palmar aspect of the proximal phalanx. It is superficial to the cruciates. The '''straight ligament'''  proximally attaches like the oblique but attaches as a flat band to the edge of the complementary fibrocartilage of the proximal end of the middle phalanx. Finally, the '''palmar annular ligament''' wraps around the sesamoids, flexor tendons and their associated sheaths.
-*'''Long medial collateral ligament''': Attaches to the medial styloid process of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Radius and Ulna|radius]] then runs to insert on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|second metacarpal]] (medial splint) bone. A deep branch then detaches to insert on [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Bones|2nd carpal]] bone.
+<br />
-*'''Short ligaments''': Join neighbouring [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Carpal Bones|carpal]] bones either within the same row, or in the adjacent row.
+<br />
-===Metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint===
+====Proximal Interphalangeal (Pastern) Joint====
-The fetlock joint is the articulation between the trochlea of [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|third metacarpal]] (cannon bone), the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] and the proximal sesamoid bones; it allows flexion and extension movements. The joint capsule is divided into a dorsal and palmar pouch.  The dorsal pouch extends between [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|third metacarpal]] (cannon bone) and the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Extensors|common digital extensor tendon]].  The palmar pouch lies between [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|third metacarpal]] (cannon bone) and the suspensory ligament.  It has an extensive bursa under the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Extensors|common digital extensor tendon]], continuing a quarter of the length up the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|third metacarpal]]. This joint is associated with a pair of proximal sesamoid bones on the palmar surface. Between the sesamoids, in a groove, lies articular cartilage which articulates with the sagittal ridge of [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|third metacarpal]]. The joint capsule runs between all bones in the joint and  attaches to the articular cartilage of the sesamoids.
+The pastern joint allows flexion and extension movements. The palmar border of the middle phalanx has a complementary fibrocartilage that extends the proximal articular surface of the middle phalanx. It is sometimes called the middle scutum as it provides a gliding surface for the deep digital flexor. The joint capsule is simple and attaches by the articular margins of the two phalanges. The  '''collateral ligaments''' connect the distal end of the proximal phalanx to the proximal end of the middle phalanx. They lie in a vertical direction rather than along the bone axis. The fibres of the '''collateral sesamoid ligaments''' of the distal interphalangeal joint run with it, attach to the middle phalanx and then continue on to their distal attachments. The '''palmar ligaments''' connect the palmar aspect of the distal half of the proximal phalanx to the complementary fibrocartilage of the middle phalanx. These restrict dorsiflexion of the joint. A '''proximal digital annular ligament''' wraps around the superficial surface of the flexor tendons and their sheaths at the level of the proximal phalanx. There is a distal one also exists that is attached to the proximal phalanx, it is superficially associated with the digital cushion and is connected to the ergot by the thin fibrous '''ligament of the ergot'''.
-Ligamentous support:
-*'''Collateral ligaments''' bind the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy|metacarpal bone]] to the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]], with a deep branch attaching to the sesamoid bone.
-*'''Palmar/intersesamoidean ligament''' is a mass of fibrocartilage that embeds the sesamoid bones. The palmar aspect of it forms a groove for the deep flexor tendon to run in, allowing frictionless movement.
-*'''Collateral sesamoid ligaments''' connect the outer aspect of the sesamoids to the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] and there is a distinct branch that attaches to the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|third metacarpal]].
-*'''Distal sesamoid ligaments''' are a collection of ligaments that are very marked in the horse and connect the distal surface of the sesamoids to the palmar aspect of the[[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy|phalanx]]. These ligaments include the '''short ligaments''', '''cruciate ligaments''', '''oblique ligament''', '''straight ligament''' and the '''palmar annular ligament'''.
-** The '''short ligaments''' connect the axial base of the sesamoids to the lateral/medial aspect on the palmar margin of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]].  These are the deepest of the ligaments.
-** The '''cruciate ligaments''' are paired ligaments from the base of the sesamoids that diagonally cross to attach to the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]].   They lie superficial to the short ligaments.
-** The '''oblique ligament''' is a triangular shaped ligament, the base of which attaches to the sesamoids and their interconnecting ligament and the point attaches to the rough palmar aspect of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]].   It is superficial to the cruciates.
-** The '''straight ligament'''  proximally attaches like the oblique, but attaches as a flat band to the edge of the complementary fibrocartilage of the proximal end of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]].
-** The '''palmar annular ligament''' wraps around the sesamoids, [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|flexor tendons]] and their associated sheaths.
 <br />
-===Proximal Interphalangeal (Pastern) Joint===
-The pastern joint, between the trochlea of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] and the proximal end of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]], allows flexion and extension movements. The palmar border of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]] has a complementary fibrocartilage that extends the proximal articular surface of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]]. It is sometimes called the middle scutum as it provides a gliding surface for the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|deep digital flexor tendon]]. The joint capsule is simple and attaches by the articular margins of the two phalanges; blending with the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Extensors|common digital extensor tendon]] dorsally, the collateral ligaments lateral and medially and the straight sesamoidean ligament on the palmar aspect.
-The  '''collateral ligaments''' connect the distal end of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] to the proximal end of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]]. They lie in a vertical direction rather than along the bone axis. The fibres of the '''collateral sesamoid ligaments''' of the distal interphalangeal joint run with it, attach to the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]] and then continue on to their distal attachments. The '''palmar ligaments''' connect the palmar aspect of the distal half of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] to the complementary fibrocartilage of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]]. These restrict dorsiflexion of the joint. A '''proximal digital annular ligament''' wraps around the superficial surface of the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|flexor tendons]] and their sheaths at the level of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]]. There is a distal one also exists that is attached to the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]], it is superficially associated with the digital cushion and is connected to the ergot by the thin fibrous '''ligament of the ergot'''.
 <br />
-===Distal Interphalangeal (Coffin) Joint===
+====Distal Interphalangeal (Coffin) Joint====
-The coffin joint, between the distal trochlea of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]], [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]] and the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|distal sesamoid ('''navicular bone''')]], allows extension and slight flexion movements. The '''navicular bursa''' lies between the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|navicular bone]] and the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|deep digital flexor tendon]]. The joint capsule attaches to the articular periphery and has two pouches, a small dorsal and larger palmar pouch.  The dorsal pouch extends under the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Extensors|common digital extensor tendon]] to just proximal of the coronary band. The palmar pouch extends under the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|deep digital flexor tendon]] to the approximately half way up the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]]. It dips between the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]]  and sesamoid and bulges laterally where it is related to the collateral ligaments.
+The coffin joint allows extension and slight flexion movements. The '''navicular bursa''' lies between the navicular bone and the deep flexor tendon. The joint capsule attaches to the articular periphery. There is a dorsal recess under the extensor tendons and a palmar one that runs to about half the height of the middle phalanx. It dips between the distal phalanx and sesamoid and bulges laterally where it is related to the collateral ligaments. The '''collateral ligaments''' connect the distal part of the middle phalanx to the sides of the proximal distal phalanx. The '''distal sesamoid ligaments''' connect the distal border of the navicular bone to the flexor surface of the distal phalanx. The '''collateral sesamoid ligaments''' are fibroelastic ligaments that attach to the proximal phalanx with the collateral ligaments of the pastern joint and insert to the proximal border of the navicular bone. The ungual/lateral cartilages have a series of ligaments going to the medial/lateral surfaces of the three phalanges and distal sesamoid. There is also a fibrous band connecting the inner surfaces of the cartilages by crossing the superficial aspect of the deep digital flexor tendon.
-The '''collateral ligaments''' connect the distal part of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Middle Phalanx|middle phalanx]] to the medial and lateral sides of the proximal [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]] . The '''distal sesamoid ligaments''' connect the distal border of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|navicular bone]] to the flexor surface of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Phalanx|distal phalanx]] . The '''collateral sesamoid ligaments''' are fibroelastic ligaments that attach to the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Proximal Phalanx|proximal phalanx]] with the collateral ligaments of the pastern joint and insert to the proximal border of the [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|navicular bone]] . The [[Hoof - Horse Anatomy#Ungual Cartilages|ungual/lateral cartilages]] have a series of ligaments going to the medial/lateral surfaces of the three phalanges and [[Phalanges - Horse Anatomy#Distal Sesamoid (Navicular) Bone|distal sesamoid (navicular bone)]] . There is also a fibrous band connecting the inner surfaces of the cartilages by crossing the superficial aspect of the [[Tendons - Horse Anatomy#Flexors|deep digital flexor tendon]] .
+==Pelvic Limb==
-==[[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology|Pelvic Limb]]==
 ====[[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Sacroiliac Joint|Sacroiliac Joint]]====
-In horses the short branch of the '''dorsal sacroiliac ligaments''' connects the sacral tuberosity to the spinous processes of the sacrum. The '''sacrotuberous ligament''' is a broad sheet-like ligament, which extends between the transverse processes of the first caudal vertebrae and the dorsal border of [[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Ischium|ischium]] and [[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Ilium|ilium]]. In this ligament are the '''lesser and greater ischiatic foramen''', these are present to allow for blood vessels, nerves and tendons.
+In horses the short branch of the '''dorsal sacroiliac ligaments''' connects the sacral tuberosity to the spinous processes of the sacrum. The '''sacrotuberous ligament''' is a broad sheet-like ligament, which extends between the transverse processes of the first caudal vertebrae and the dorsal border of ischium and ilium. In this ligament are the '''lesser and greater ischiatic foramen''', these are present to allow for blood vessels, nerves and tendons.
+<br />
-====[[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Coxofemoral/Hip Joint|Coxofemoral/Hip Joint]]====
+<br />
-The horse has a limited range of hip movement compared to the dog. This is mainly restricted to flexion and extension and is a result of the conformation of its [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Femur|femoral head]], intra-articular ligaments and a large muscle mass around the joint. The '''ligament of the femoral head''' extends from the acetabulum to the fovea on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Femur|femoral head]]. Unlike other species, the horse also has an extra ligament present in the joint; the '''accessory ligament'''. The accessory ligament arises from the tendon of insertion of  the ''rectus abdominis'' muscle and to a lesser extent ''external abdominal oblique'' muscle as part of the ''prepubic tendon'' and inserts on the fovea. Both ligaments pass through '''acetabular notch'''.
+====[[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Coxafemoral|Coxafemoral/Hip Joint]]====
+The horse has a limited range of hip movement compared to the dog. This is mainly restricted to flexion and extension and is a result of the conformation of its femoral head, intra-articular ligaments and a large muscle mass around the joint. The '''ligament of the femoral head''' extends from the acetabulum to the fovea on the femoral head. Unlike other species, the horse also has an extra ligament present in the joint; the '''accessory ligament'''. The accessory ligament arises from the tendon of insertion of  the ''rectus abdominis'' muscle and to a lesser extent ''external abdominal oblique'' muscle as part of the ''prepubic tendon'' and inserts on the fovea. Both ligaments pass through '''acetabular notch'''.
 ===[[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Stifle Joint|Stifle Joint]]===
 ====Femorotibial Joint====
-The femorotibial joint is formed by the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Femur|femur]] and [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]].  It is divided by '''menisci''' into proximal and distal segments. These communicate through open centres of the menisci where the condyles of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Femur|femur]] and [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]] are in contact.  The synovial membrane of the joint capsule, which is complete only in the horse, further divides the joint into medial and lateral compartments.  The menisci are fibrocartilaginous structures that act as shock absorbers, reducing concussion on the joint as well as incongruency of the articular surfaces. Menisci are attached at the outer margins to the fibrous joint capsule and anchored at their ends mainly on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]] by the '''cranial and caudal ligaments''', but the lateral meniscus has an additional ligament attaching it to the distal [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Femur|femur]]. The '''cruciate ligaments''' in the centre of the joint are important for [[Joints and Ligaments - Horse Anatomy#Stifle Joint|stifle]] stability.
+The femorotibial joint is divided by '''menisci''' into upper and lower segments. These communicate through open centres of the menisci where the condyles of the femur and tibia are in contact. The menisci are fibrocartilaginous structures that act as shock absorbers, reducing concussion on the joint as well as incongruency of the articular surfaces. They are attached at the outer margins to the fibrous joint capsule and anchored at their ends mainly on the tibia, but also to the femur by one ligament. The joint  is divided into medial and lateral sacs;both of which may communicate with the femoropatellar joint. The '''cruciate ligaments''' in the centre of the joint are important for stifle stability.
 ====Femoropatellar Joint====
-The femoropatellar joint is formed by the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Femur|femur]] and [[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Patella|patella]].  The [[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Patella|patella]] is anchored to the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Femur|femur]]  by the  medial and lateral '''femoropatellar ligaments''' and to the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]]  by three patellar ligaments:
+The equine stifle has three patellar ligaments:
 *'''Middle Patellar Ligament'''
-The middle patellar ligament connects the the cranial aspect of the [[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Patella|patella]] apex to the tibial tuberosity. It has two associated bursae; one between the ligament and the groove on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibial tuberosity]] and one between the proximal part of the ligament and the [[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Patella|patella]] apex. It is palpable just proximal to the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibial plateaux]].
+The middle patellar ligament connects the the cranial aspect of the '''[[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Patella|patella]]''' apex to the tibial tuberosity. It has two associated bursae; one between the ligament and the groove on the tibial tuberosity and one between the proximal part of the ligament and the patella apex. It is palpable just proximal to the tibial plateau.
 *'''Lateral Patellar Ligament'''
-The lateral patellar ligament attaches to the cranio-lateral aspect of the [[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Patella|patella]] and to the lateral aspect of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibial tuberosity]]. This arrangement is crucial for the equine [[Stay Apparatus - Horse Anatomy#Pelvic Limb|stay apparatus]] and provides a '''locking ability'''. This ligament contains tendinous tissue from the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Rump Muscles of the Pelvic Limb|''biceps femoris'']]  and [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Rump Muscles of the Pelvic Limb|''tensor fasciae latae'']] muscles.
+The lateral patellar ligament attaches to the cranio-lateral aspect of the '''[[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Patella|patella]]''' and to the lateral aspect of the tibial tuberosity. This arrangement is crucial for the equine 'stay' apparatus and provides a '''locking ability'''.
 *'''Medial Patellar Ligament'''
-The medial patellar ligament connects the parapatellar fibrocartilage to the medial aspect of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibial tuberosity]] . This ligament  contains tendinous elements of the [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Rump Muscles of the Pelvic Limb|''sartorius'']] and [[Muscles - Horse Anatomy#Rump Muscles of the Pelvic Limb|''gracilis'']] muscles.
+The medial patellar ligament connects the parapatellar fibrocartilage to the medial aspect of the tibial tuberosity.
-Contraction of the quadriceps while in rest enables the [[Hindlimb - Anatomy & Physiology#Patella|patella]]  to be hooked over the trochlea of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Femur|femur]] due to the binding loop formed by the patella, middle and medial patellar ligaments.  The '''femeropatellar joint''' capsule sometimes communicates with the '''lateral femerotibial''' cavity and usually with the '''medial'''. No communication exists between the femorotibial joints.
-===Tibiofibular Joint===
-In the horse, this joint only exists proximally because the distal end of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|fibula]] is fused to the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]] to form the lateral malleolus.
-===Tarsal Joint (Hock)===
-The hock has four levels of articulation: tarsocrural joint, proximal intertarsal joint, distal intertarsal joint and tarsometatarsal joint.  In the horse, the distal three permit almost no movement (high impact, low motion joint).
-====Tarsocrural Joint====
-In the horse, this joint is formed between the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]] and [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|talus]] only, since the distal end of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|fibula]] is incorporated in the lateral malleolus of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]]. There is communication with the proximal intertarsal joint.
-====Proximal Intertarsal Joint====
-Proximally, there is articulation between the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|talus]] and [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|calcaneus]].  Distally there is articulation between the central and fourth [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|tarsal bones]].
-====Distal Intertarsal Joint====
-Articulation between the central [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|tarsal bone]] and the numbered [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|tarsal bones]].
-====Tarsometatarsal Joint====
-Articulation between the small, numbered [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|tarsal bones]] and the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|metatarsals]].
-====Ligaments of the Tarsus====
-*'''Collateral ligaments''':
-**''Long lateral collateral'': Arises from the lateral maleolus of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]] and terminates on the proximal end of  [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|metatarsal IV]] (lateral splint). Between these points it attaches to the lateral [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|tarsal bones]].
-**''Short lateral collateral'': Deep to the long lateral collateral. It arises from the lateral maleolus of the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tibia and Fibula|tibia]] and attaches via two branches, one to the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|calcaneus]] and one to the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|talus]].
-**''Long medial collateral'': Arises from the medial malleolus and terminates on the proximal end of [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|metatarsal II]] (medial splint). Between these points it attaches to the medial [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|tarsal bones]].
-**''Short lateral collateral'': Deep to the long medial collateral. It arises from the medial malleolus and attaches via two branches, one on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|calcaneus]] and one on the [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|talus]].
-*'''Long plantar ligament''': Extends on the plantar aspect of the hock from the calcaneal tuberosity distally to the proximal end of the third and fourth [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Metacarpals and Metatarsals|metatarsal bones]] and also attaches to the central and fourth [[Limb Bones and Cartilages - Horse Anatomy#Tarsal Bones|tarsal bones]].
-'''The metatarsophalangeal (Fetlock), proximal interphalangeal (Pastern) and distal interphalangeal (Coffin) joints in the pelvic limb are identical to the corresponding joints in the thoracic limb.'''
-==Webinars==
-<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/orthopaedics/webinars/feed</rss>
-==References==
+Contraction of the quadriceps while in rest enables the patella to be hooked over the trochlea of the femur due to the binding loop formed by the patella, middle and medial patellar ligaments.  The '''femeropatellar joint''' capsule sometimes communicates with the '''lateral femerotibial''' cavity and usually with the '''medial'''. No communication exists between the femorotibial joints.
-*Budras, K. Sack, W.O., Anatomy of the Horse, 6th Edition (2012), Schlutersche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG
-[[Category:Musculoskeletal System - Horse Anatomy]]
+===Hock Joint===
+[[Category:Horse Anatomy]]