Difference between revisions of "Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology"

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<big><center>[[Musculoskeletal System - Anatomy & Physiology|'''BACK TO MUSCULOSKELETAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY''']]</center></big>
  
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==Introduction==
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== Introduction ==
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[[Image:Deer Skull with Antlers.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Deer Skull - Copyright nabrown RVC]]
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[[Image:Deer Skull with Antlers.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Deer Skull with Antlers''', Nabrown, date unknown]]
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The shape and size of the skull varies widely, not only between species but also with age, breed and sex of similar species. The skull is divided into three components- the neurocranium, the dermatocranium and the viscerocranium. The skull also includes the [[Hyoid Apparatus - Anatomy & Physiology|hyoid apparatus]], mandible, ossicles of the middle [[Special Senses - Auditory - Anatomy & Physiology|ear]] and the cartilage of the [[Larynx - Anatomy & Physiology|larynx]], nose and [[Special Senses - Auditory - Anatomy & Physiology|ear]]. The skull protects the brain and head against injury and supports the structures of the face. In some animals the skull is also used for defensive actions, for example in [[Anatomy & Physiology of the Horn|horned]] ungulates such as red deer stags.  
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The shape and size of the skull varies widely, not only between species but also with age, breed and sex of similar species. The skull is divided into three components - the '''neurocranium''', the '''dermatocranium''' and the '''viscerocranium'''. The skull also includes the '''[[Hyoid Apparatus - Anatomy & Physiology|hyoid apparatus]]''', '''mandible''', '''ossicles of the middle [[Ear - Anatomy & Physiology|ear]]''' and the cartilage of the '''[[Larynx - Anatomy & Physiology|larynx]]''', '''nose''' and '''[[Ear - Anatomy & Physiology|ear]]'''. The skull protects the brain and head against injury and supports the structures of the face. In some animals the skull is also used for defensive actions, for example in [[Horn - Anatomy & Physiology|horned]] ungulates such as red deer stags. The '''neurocranium''' develops from the neural crest and mesoderm and undergoes [[Bone & Cartilage Development - Anatomy & Physiology|endochondral ossification]]. It lies ventral to the brain. The '''dermatocranium''' lies dorsal to the brain and develops from the neural crest and mesoderm. It undergoes [[Bone & Cartilage Development - Anatomy & Physiology#1._Intramembranous_Ossification|intramembranous ossification]]. The '''viscerocranium''' is the pharyngeal skeleton. It is derived only from the neural crest and undergoes endochondral and intramembranous ossification. The various facial muscles attach onto the skull in different places depending on their function. Movement of the external appendages, [[Mastication|mastication]] and facial expressions all rely on the movement of the facial muscles. <br> <br>
 
  
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== Structure ==
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The neurocranium develops from the neural crest and mesoderm and undergoes endochondral ossification. It lies ventral to the brain.
  
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The skull is made of many small bones, most of which are paired. Cartilage or fibrous tissue separates the bones of the skull in the young animal and once growth has ceased, the sutures begin to ossify. <br> <br>
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The dermatocranium lies dorsal to the brain and develops from the neural crest and mesoderm. It undergoes intramembranous ossification.
  
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== Function  ==
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The viscerocranium is the pharyngeal skeleton. It is derived only from the neural crest and undergoes endochondral and intramembranous ossification.
  
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The skull has various functions including protection of brain, support of the facial muscles by providing origin and insertion sites, development of foramen to provide entry and exit places for the vasculature and nervous system and a defense function. <br> <br>
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The various facial muscles attach onto the skull in different places depending on their function. Movement of the external apendages, [[Mastication|mastication]] and facial expressions all rely on the movement of the facial muscles.
  
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== Bones of the Skull  ==
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==Structure==
  
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=== Occipital Bone (''os occipitale'')  ===
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*The skull is made of many smaller bones
  
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[[Image:Pig skull dorsal.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Dorsal Pig skull''', nabrown, 2008]] The occipital bone forms the '''nuchal wall''' and the '''foramen magnum'''. The '''pars basilaris''' element is the caudal base of the cranium, although rostral to foramen magnum and joined by a cartilagenous suture to '''basisphenoid bone'''. It has muscular tubercules on ventral surface where the flexors of the head and neck attach and a caudocranial fossa encloses the pons and medulla oblongata. The squamous part '''''(pars squamosa)''''' is dorsal to lateral parts and occipital condyles. A nuchal crest is present and is easily palpable. The nuchal crest is often used as a landmark for collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). There are also external occipital protuberances present which provide muscle attachment sites for the nuchal ligament. The lateral parts '''''(partes laterales)''''' form the borders of foramen magnum. '''Occipital condyles''' are present which articulate with the atlas to form the atlanto-occipital joint. The '''paracondylar process''' provide muscle attachment sites for muscles of the head. The '''hypoglossal canal''' is also within this structure. <br> <br> <br>
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*Most of the skull bones are paired
  
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=== Sphenoid Bone (''os sphenoidale'')  ===
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*Cartilage or fibrous tissue separates the bones of the skull in the young animal
  
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[[Image:Pig skull ventral view.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Ventral Pig Skull''', nabrown, 2008]] The sphenoid bone forms the base of the neurocranium and is composed of a body and wings. The bones are separated by cartilage which ossifies with age. The '''presphenoid (''os praespenoidale'')''' is rostral and has a caudal fossa which is a hollow body with sphenoid sinuses located inside. Within the sinuses are the '''optic chiasma''' and '''optic canal'''. The '''basisphenoid (''os basispenoidalis'')''' is caudal and has a '''median cranial fossa'''. The wings oppose the temporal bone, maxilla, orbit and the brain. The wings also form the '''oval foramen''' and other foramena (see [[Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology#Species_Differences|species differences]]) including the '''carotid notch, oval foramen''' and '''spinous notch''' (in the horse). The pterygoid processes are also present. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
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*Once growth has ceased, the sutures begin to ossify
  
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=== Temporal Bone (''os temporale'')  ===
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==Function==
  
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[[Image:Zygomatic arch.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Pig Zygomatic Arch''', nabrown, 2008]] The temporal bone is composed of '''squamous, petrosal''' and '''tympanic''' parts and forms the lateral wall of the cranial cavity. It articulates with the frontal, parietal and sphenoid bones. The squamous element joins the temporal process of the zygomatic bone to form the '''zygomatic arch''' and forms the articulating surface of the '''[[Mastication#Jaw_Articulation|temporomandibular joint]]'''. An '''articular tubercle''' and '''mandibular fossa''' are present. Occipital process and retrotympanic processes surround the '''external acoustic meatus''' whilst the petrosal part encloses the inner ear internally via the '''internal acoustic meatus'''. Ventrally this structure forms the '''mastoid process'''. The '''styloid process''' attaches the '''[[Hyoid Apparatus - Anatomy & Physiology|hyoid apparatus]]''' and a '''stylomastoid foramen''' is also present. The tympanic part is the ventral section of the temporal bone containing the '''tympanic bulla'''. The '''tympanic membrane''' separates tympanic cavity from '''external acoustic meatus''' and encloses the '''auditory ossicle''' dorsally. The musculotubal canal contains tensors of the [[Soft Palate#Musculature_and_Innervation|soft palate]]. <br> <br>
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*Protection of brain
  
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=== Frontal Bone (''os frontale'')  ===
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*Support facial muscles by providing origin and insertion sites
  
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The frontal bone is a paired structure joined by the '''interfrontal suture''' between the cranium and the face and enclosing the '''frontal sinuses'''. The nasal and lacrimal bones border the frontal squama section and form the zygomatic process laterally and part of the orbit dorsally. Lacrimal glands are also present near the orbit. The '''temporal line''' extends into the '''external sagittal crest'''. Ruminants also have a '''cornual process''' in [[Horn - Anatomy & Physiology|horned]] variants. The nasal section is the rostral part of the frontal bone and the orbital part is perforated by the '''ethmoidal foramen'''. Medially the '''dorsal oblique muscle''' of the eyeball attaches. The temporal part provides the muscle attachments for the '''temporalis muscle'''. <br> <br>
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*Foramen provide entry and exit places for the vasculature and nervous system
  
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=== Parietal Bone (''os parietale'')  ===
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*Defense
  
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[[Image:Pareital Bone.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Parietal Bone''', nabrown, 2008]] The parietal bone is a paired structure and forms the dorsolateral wall of the cranium with the cccipital bone caudally and the frontal bone rostrally. It is composed of a parietal plane, temporal plane and a nuchal plane (in the ox). Internally the grooves and ridges correspond with the gyri and sulci of the brain. There is also an '''interparietal bone''' between the occipital bone and the parietal bone which fuses with age. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
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==Bones of the Skull==
  
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=== Ethmoid Bone (''os ethmoidale'') ===
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===Occipital Bone (os occipitale)===
  
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[[Image:Nasal Cavities.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Nasal Cavities''', David Bainbridge]] The ethmoid bone forms part of the cranial and facial parts of the skull and is located deep in the orbit. External lamina consist of the roof plate, floor plate and paired orbital plates. The ethmoid bone is separated from the cranial cavity by the '''cribiform plate'''. Numerous small foramina exist where the '''olfactory nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN I]]) passes through. The perpendicular plate splits the ethmoid into two halves and the ethmoid larbyrinth protrudes from the ethmoid tubes. The tubes are composed of two rows of '''ethmoturbinates''' and air filled '''ethmoidal meatuses'''. Secondary ethmoturbinates may also be present. Ethmoturbinates are divided into '''endoturbinates''' and '''ectoturbinates'''. The first endoturbinate forms the dorsal nasal conchae and the second endoturbinate froms the middle nasal conchae. The endoturbinates form 3 nasal meatuses; the '''dorsal nasal meatus''', the '''middle nasal meatus''' and the '''ventral nasal meatus'''. [[Image:Ethmoid Turbinates.jpg|thumb|right|200px| '''Ethmoid Turbinates''', nabrown, 2008]]<br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
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*Forms the nuchal wall
  
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=== Nasal Bone (''os nasale'')  ===
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*Forms the foramen magnum
  
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The nasal bone is a paired structure and forms the roof of the nasal cavity. '''Dorsal nasal conchae''' attach to the '''ethmoidal crest''' on the internal surface. A rostral suture forms the apex and between the nasal and incisive bones is the '''nasoincisive notch'''. <br> <br>
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*Basilar part (pars basilaris)
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**Caudal base of the cranium
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**Rostral to foramen magnum
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**Joined by cartilagenous suture to basisphenoid bone
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**Muscular tubercules on ventral surface where the flexors of the head and neck attach
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**Caudal cranial fossa enclose the pons and medulla oblongata
  
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=== Lacrimal Bone (''os lacrimale'') ===
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*Squamous part (pars squamosa)
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**Dorsal to lateral parts and occipital condyles
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**Nuchal crest present
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***Easily palpable
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***Landmark for collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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**External occipital protuberances present which provide muscle attachment sites for the nuchal ligament
  
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The lacrimal bone forms part of the lateral wall of the face and orbit and is situated near the '''medial canthus'''. It articulates with the '''frontal bone, zygomatic bone''' and '''maxilla'''. It also articulates with the '''nasal bone''' in ruminants and the horse and articulates with the '''palatine bone''' in carnivores. It is composed of an orbital and facial part separated by supra- and infraorbital margins. The '''nasolacrimal duct''' is present by the margin of the orbital surface. The '''ventral oblique muscle''' attaches caudal to the margin of the orbital surface. The nasal surface forms the boundaries of the '''maxillary and frontal sinuses'''. <br> <br>
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*Lateral parts (partes laterales)
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**Lateral borders of foramen magnum
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**Occipital condyles present which articulate with the atlas to form the atlanto-occipital joint
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**Paracondylar process present which provides muscle attachment sights for muscles of the head
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**Hypoglossal canal
  
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=== Zygomatic Bone (''os zygomaticum'') ===
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===Sphenoid Bone (os sphenoidale)===
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[[Image:Pig skull ventral view.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Ventral view pig skull (vomer, occipital condyle, sphenoid, pterygoid bone, hamulus labelled)- Copyright RVC]]
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*Forms the base of the neurocranium
  
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The zygomatic bone is lateral and ventral to the lacrimal bone and forms the orbit and zygomatic arch. The supraorbital margin is formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the frontal process of the zygomatic bone. The facial crest is present on lateral surface. <br> <br>
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*Composed of a body and wings
  
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=== Incisive Bone (''os incisivium'')  ===
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*Bones separated by cartilage which ossifies with age
  
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[[Image:Cow skull lateral view.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Cow skull lateral view''', nabrown, 2008]] The incisive bone is a paired structure composed of body, nasal, palatine and alveolar parts. It joins with the maxilla to form the '''interalveolar margin'''. It also forms the rostral part of the facial section of the skull, the roof of the '''[[Hard Palate|hard palate]]''' and the opening to the nasal cavity. The alveolar process forms conical sockets for the incisor teeth. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
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*Presphenoid (os praespenoidale)
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**Rostrally
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**Rostral caudal fossa
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**Hollow body with sphenoid sinuses located inside
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**Sphenoid rostrum present
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**Optic chiasma
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**Optic Canal
  
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=== Palatine Bone (''os palatinum'') ===
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*Basisphenoid (os basispenoidalis)
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**Caudally
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**Median cranial fossa
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**The wings oppose the temporal bone, maxilla, orbit and the brain
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**Wings form the oval foramen and other foramen (see species differences) carotid notch, oval foramen and spinous notch (in the horse)
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**Pterygoid processes present
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**Alar canal (rostral and caudal alar foramen)
  
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[[Image:Palatine Bone.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Palatine Bone''', nabrown, 2008]] The palatine bone is a paired structure between the maxilla, sphenoid and pterygoid bones. It is composed of a horizontal plate (forms part of the [[Hard Palate|hard palate]]), perpendicular plate (forms the dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal meatus) and the choanae. The '''nasal crest''' present on the horizontal plate. The '''palatine sinus''' is present on horizontal plate. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
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===Temporal Bone (os temporale)===
  
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=== Vomer  ===
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*Composed of squamous, petrosal and tympanic parts
  
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The vomer is unpaired and extends from the choanae of the palatine bone to the floor of the nasal cavity. It attaches to the median nasal crest and has a '''septal sulcus''' which surrounds nasal cavity. <br> <br>
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*Lateral wall of the cranial cavity
  
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=== Pterygoid Bone (''os pterygoideum'') ===
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*Articulates with the frontal, pareital and sphenoid bones
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[[Image:Zygomatic arch.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Zygomatic Arch (Dog) - Copyright RVC]]
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*Zygomatic process
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**On squamous part
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**Joins the temporal process of the zygomatic bone to form the zygomatic arch
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**Forms the articulating surface of the [[Mastication#Jaw Articulation|temperomandibular joint]]
  
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The pterygoid bone is a paired structure bordered by the '''palatine''' and '''sphenoid bones'''. It forms the dorsal and lateral walls of the '''nasopharyngeal cavity'''. The '''pterygoid hamulus''' is formed by the pterygoid bone. <br> <br>
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*Articular tubercle present
  
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=== Maxilla  ===
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*Mandibular fossa present
  
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[[Image:Horse Maxilla.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Horse Maxilla''', nabrown, 2008]] The maxilla forms most of the facial part of the skull, including the lateral walls of the face, nasal cavity, [[Oral Cavity Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|oral cavity]] and [[Hard Palate|hard palate]]. It also forms the ventral nasal conchae and articulates with all of the facial bones as it is the largest bone of the face. The maxillary body encloses the '''maxillary sinuses''' and forms the external surface of the face. It also forms the '''facial crest'''. The '''infraorbital foramen''' is palpable. The '''conchal crest''' is on nasal surface where the ventral nasal conchae attaches. The '''lacrimal canal''' opens into the '''lacrimal foramen''' on the nasal surface. The '''pterygopalatine surfaces''' are the caudal part of the maxilla which terminate in the '''maxillary tubercle''' where the '''sphenopalatine, maxillary''' and '''caudal palatine foramen''' are present. The '''alveolar processes''' present are separated by '''interalveolar septa'''. The '''palatine process''' forms the '''[[Hard Palate|hard palate]]''' with the palatine bone. The '''palatine fissure''' is formed at the articulation with the incisive bone. The nasal surface of palatine process forms the '''nasal crest''' and encloses part of the palatine sinuses. The oral surface has numerous palatine foramina present. <br> <br>
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*Occipital process and retrotympanic process surrounds the external acoustic meatus
  
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=== Mandible (''mandibula'')  ===
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*Petrosal part encloses the inner ear
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**Internal acoustic meatus present
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**Forms mastoid process ventrally
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**Styloid process present which attaches the [[Hyoid Apparatus - Anatomy & Physiology|hyoid apparatus]]
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**Stylomastoid foramen present
  
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[[Image:Cow Mandible.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Cow Mandible''', nabrown, 2008]] [[Image:Parrot Mandible.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Parrot Mandible''', nabrown, 2008]] The mandible can be divided into the '''body''' and the '''ramus'''. The body of the mandible supports the incisor teeth (rostrally) and cheek teeth (caudally). The section of the body which does not support any teeth is called the '''interalveolar margin''' or '''diastema'''. The mandibule also contains the '''mandibular canal''' and the '''mental foramen'''. The '''facial notch''' is on the ventral surface where the '''parotid duct''' (in herbivores) and facial vessels run. The '''ramus''' extends from the caudal end of the body dorsally towards the zygomatic arch. The '''masseter muscle''' attaches to the lateral surface at the '''masseteric fossa'''. The '''medial pterygoid''' attaches to the medial surface at the '''pterygoid fossa'''. The angle of the mandible terminates dorsally in the '''condylar process''' and the '''coronoid process''' which are separated by the '''mandibular notch'''. The '''temporal muscle''' inserts onto the '''coronoid head'''. The condylar process articulates with the mandibular process of the skull (see [[Mastication#Jaw_Articulation|here]]). <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
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*Tympanic part is the ventral section of the temporal bone
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**Tympanic bulla present
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**Tympanic membrane separates tympanic cavity from external acoustic meatus
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**Encloses auditory ossicle dorsally
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**Musculotubal canal where tensors of the [[Soft Palate - Anatomy & Physiology#Musculature and Innervation|soft palate]] originate
  
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== Major Foramen and Canals  ==
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===Frontal Bone (os frontale)===
  
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[[Image:Foramen Magnum.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Foramen Magnum''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''jugular foramen''' is located either side of basilar part of occipital bone, adjacent to tympanic bulla and contains the '''glossopharyngeal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN IX]]), '''vagus nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN X]]) and '''accessory nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN XI]]). The jugular foramen also contains the '''internal carotid artery'''. The '''foramen magnum''' is formed by the occipital bones and is the spinal cord's passage to the neck and body. The '''alar ligaments''' run through the foramen magnum together with vertebral arteries, spinal arteries and tectoral membranes. The '''hypoglossal canal''' is between paracondylar and condylar processes on lateral part of occipital bone. The '''hypoglossal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN XII]]), '''condylar artery''' and '''condylar vein''' all pass through. The '''optic chiasma''' runs in a transverse depression behind the '''sphenoid rostrum''' on presphenoid bone and facilitates the path of the '''optic nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN II]]). <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> [[Image:Sheep Skull Eye Foramen.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Skull Eye Foramen''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''optic canal''' passes from the '''optic chiasma''' over wings of the presphenoid bones and facilitates the path of the '''optic nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN II]]). The '''oval foramen''' is found within the caudal wing of the basisphenoid bones and the '''mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V3]]) passes through it. The '''alar canal''' is formed by the rostral border of the basisphenoid bone at the base of the pterygoid processes. It is composed of the '''caudal alar foramen, rostral alar foramen''' and the '''small alar foramen'''. The '''maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V2]]) passes through together with the '''temporal artery'''. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> [[Image:Pig Foramen Ventral.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Pig Ventral Skull Foramen''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''stylomastoid foramen''' is situated on the petrosal part of the temporal bone and allows the '''facial nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN VII]]) to pass through. The '''ethmoidal foramen''' perforates the orbital part of the frontal bone allowing the '''olfactory nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN I]]) and '''ethmoidal artery and vein''' to pass through. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> [[Image:Cow Skull dorsal view.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Cow Skull Dorsal View''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''orbital fissure''' is on the presphenoid bone and allows the '''opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V1]]), '''occulomotor nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN III]]), '''trochlear nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN IV]]) and the '''abducens nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN VI]]) to pass through. The '''supraorbital foramen''' is on the frontal bone and allows the '''opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V1]]) to pass through together with the '''frontal artery and vein'''. The '''infraorbital foramen''' is on the maxilla and allows the '''maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V2]]) to pass through together with the '''infraorbital artery and vein'''. [[Image:Mental and Infraorbital Foramen.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Mental and Infraorbital Formen''', nabrown, 2008]] The '''mental foramen''' is on rostral end of the mandible and allows the '''mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN V3]]) and the '''mental artery and vein''' to pass. The '''palatine canal''' runs through horizontal plate of palatine bone and allows the '''palatine artery''', '''palatine vein''' and '''palatine nerves''' to pass through. The '''internal acoustic meatus''' is made up of the medial surface of the petrosal part of the temporal bone and is the facial opening for the '''facial nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN VII]]). It is also the cochlear opening, dorsal vestibule opening and the ventral vestibule opening for the '''vestibulocochlear nerve''' ([[Cranial Nerves - Anatomy & Physiology|CN VIII]]). <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
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*Paired
  
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== Facial Muscles  ==
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*Joined by the interfrontal suture
  
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The major facial muscles are covered in the following sections of anatomy and physiology:
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*Between the cranium and the face
  
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[[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology#Muscles|Muscles of the Tongue]]
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*Encloses the frontal sinuses
  
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[[Cheeks|Muscles of the Cheeks]]  
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*The nasal and lacrimal bones border the frontal squama section
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**Forms the zygomatic process laterally
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**Forms the dorsal part of the orbit
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**Lacrimal gland present
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**Temporal line present which extends into the external sagittal crest
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**Cornual processes in [[Anatomy & Physiology of the Horn|horned]] ruminants
  
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[[Larynx - Anatomy & Physiology#Intrinsic_Musculature|Muscles of the Larynx]]
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*The nasal section is the rostral part of the frontal bone
  
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[[Pharynx - Anatomy & Physiology#Musculature|Muscles of the Pharynx]]
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*Orbital part is perforated by the ethmoidal foramen
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**Medially the dorsal oblique muscle of the eyeball attaches
  
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[[Eye - Anatomy & Physiology#Around_the_Eye|Muscles of the Eye]]
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*Temporal part provides the muscle attachments for the temporalis muscle
  
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[[Ear - Anatomy & Physiology#Outer_Ear|Muscles of the Ear]]
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===Parietal Bone (os parietale)===
  
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[[Deglutition|Muscles involved in Deglutition]]
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*Paired
  
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[[Mastication|Muscles of Mastication]]
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*Forms the dorsolateral wall of the cranium
  
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== Species Differences  ==
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*Occipital bone caudally
  
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=== Canine  ===
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*Frontal bone rostrally
  
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[[Image:Pug skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Brachycephalic skull''', nabrown, 2008]] Dogs have different skull lengths depending on breed. '''mesocephalic''' dogs have average conformation whilst '''dolichocephalic''' dogs have longer skull lengths and '''brachycephalic''' dogs have shorter skull lengths. The two sides of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement in the canine jaw. The '''external sagittal crest''' arises from '''nuchal crest'''. The wings of the basisphenoid bones form the '''oval foramen, spinous foramen''' and '''carotid canal'''. Dogs have no '''foramen lacerum''' and the styloid process is absent. In canines, the dorsal orbital margin is formed by the orbital ligament, the orbit is incomplete. <br> <br> <br> <br>
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*Composed of a pareital plane, temporal plane and a nuchal plane (in the ox)
  
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=== Feline  ===
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*Internally the grooves and ridges correspond with the gyri and sulci of the brain
  
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[[Image:Lion skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Lion skull''', nabrown, 2008]] The mandible appears globular in shape and the large orbits have complete bony margins. There are also large '''tympanic bullae''' which can be palpated. The two parts of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement. Cats have a '''weak external sagittal crest''' arising from the '''nuchal crest'''. The wings of the basisphenoid bones form the '''oval foramen, spinous foramen''' and '''carotid canal'''. Cats have no '''foramen lacerum''' and the styloid process is absent. The dorsal margin of orbit is formed by the orbital ligament which is ossified. The '''interparietal bone''' does not fuse entirely in the adult. <br> <br> <br>
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*Interpareital bone between the occipital bone and the pareital bone
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**Fuses with age
  
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=== Equine  ===
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===Ethmoid Bone (os ethmoidale)===
 +
[[Image:Nasal Cavities.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Nasal Cavities - Copyright David Bainbridge]]
 +
*Forms part of the cranial and facial parts of the skull
  
−
[[Image:Horse Skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Horse Skull''', nabrown, 2008]] Horses have a '''weak external sagittal crest''' arising from the '''nuchal crest'''. They also have an '''internal sagittal crest''' on the '''internal surface of the parietal bone'''. The orbit is placed more laterally with a complete bony rim and a strong '''zygomatic arch''' continues on to form the '''facial crest'''. There is a '''deep nasoincisive notch''' and a prominent '''hamular process'''. Horses have a very large mandible with a '''vascular notch''' and a high ramus. The wings of the basisphenoid bones form the '''oval foramen, spinous notch''' and '''carotid notch'''. Horses have a '''foramen lacerum'''. The zygomatic process articulate with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone. Horses have '''three rows of ethmoturbinates present'''. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
+
*Located deep in the orbit
  
−
=== Ruminant  ===
+
*External lamina consists of the roof plate, floor plate and paired orbital plates
  
−
[[Image:Sheep skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Sheep skull''', nabrown, 2008]] In ruminants the skull is short and wide with a '''[[Horn - Anatomy & Physiology|cornual]]''' process on frontal bone. The nuchal crest is reduced to a '''nuchal line''', although there is a prominent '''temporal line'''. Ruminants have an elevated orbital ring which is complete but have no facial crest. There are prominent '''tympanic bullae''' and a '''nasoincisive notch''' present. The wings of the basisphenoid bones form the '''oval foramen'''. Ruminants have no '''foramen lacerum'''. The petrosal and tympanic parts of the temporal bone are fused to the squamous part. The zygomatic process articulates with the frontal process of the zygomatic bone. <br> <br> <br> <br>
+
*The ethmoid bone is separated from the cranial cavity by the cribiform plate
 +
**Numerous small foramina where the olfactory nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN I]]) passes through
  
−
=== Porcine  ===
+
*The perpendicular plate splits the ethmoid into two halves
  
−
[[Image:Pig skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Pig skull''', nabrown, 2008]] Pigs have a thick nuchal crest and an '''internal sagittal crest''' on the internal surface of the parietal bone. They have a prominent '''temporal line''' and their orbit is incomplete and small. There is a strong and deep zygomatic arch, large tympanic bullae and a high caudal part of the skull. The styloid process is absent. <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br>
+
*The ethmoid larbyrinth prodrudes from the ethmoid tubes
 +
**Composed of two rows of ethmoturbinates and air filled ethmoidal meatuses
 +
**Secondary ethmoturbinates may also be present
  
−
=== Avian  ===
+
*Ethmoturbinates divided into endoturbinates and ectoturbinates
 +
**The first endoturbinate forms the dorsal nasal conchae
 +
**The second endoturbinate froms the middle nasal conchae
  
−
[[Image:Bird skull.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Bird skull''', nabrown, 2008]] Birds have '''pneumatised skull bones''' which connect to airways in the head rather than the air sacs. They have large orbits and their skull plates are separated by spongy bone. A '''single occipital condyle''' articulates with the '''atlas''' allowing more rotation of the head. In parrots, the nasal bone and frontal bone are joined by a flexible cartilage structure allowing greater jaw opening which is called the craniofacial hinge. This allows kinesis to occur. Birds have thin '''jugal arches''' (equivalent to zygomatic arch) and the middle ear contains only the columella (equivalent to the stapes). <br> <br>
+
*The endoturbinates form 3 nasal meatuses
−
<br>
+
**Dorsal nasal meatus
 +
**Middle nasal meatus
 +
**Ventral nasal meatus
  
 +
===Nasal Bone (os nasale)===
  
−
{{Learning
+
*Paired
−
|flashcards= [[Skull - Musculoskeletal - Flashcards|Skull]]<br>[[Facial Muscles - Musculoskeletal - Flashcards|Facial Muscles]]
 
−
|videos= [[Canine Lateral Head video|Potcast of the lateral surface of the canine head]]
 
−
|dragster= [[Canine Head Skeletal Anatomy Resources (I & II)]]<br>[[Canine Head Skeletal Anatomy Resources (III, IV & V)]]<br>[[Canine Facial Features Dissection Anatomy Resource]]<br>[[Canine Head Radiographical Anatomy Resources (I, II & III)]]<br>[[Canine Head Radiographical Anatomy Resources (IV & V)]]<br>[[Equine Head Dissection Anatomy Resources (I, II & III)]]<br>[[Equine Head Dissection Anatomy Resources (IV, V & VI)]]
 
−
|OVAM = [http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/foraminae-skull-and-associated-cranial-nerves-video A short video detailing the large foraminae of the canine skull and cranial nerves associated with them.]<br>[http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/sites/default/files/original_media/document/asset_8862_REG.E.1all.pdf PDF showing a sectioned equine head with labels.]
 
−
}}
 
  
 +
*Forms the roof of the nasal cavity
  
−
==Webinars==
+
*Dorsal nasal conchae attach to the ethmoidal crest on the internal surface
−
<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/clinical-anatomy/webinars/feed</rss>
 
  
−
[[Category:Musculoskeletal_System_-_Anatomy_&_Physiology]]
+
*Rostral suture form the apex
−
[[Category:Needs splitting]]
+
 
 +
*Between the nasal and incisive bones is the nasoincisive notch
 +
 
 +
===Lacrimal Bone (os lacrimale)===
 +
 
 +
*Forms part of the lateral wall of the face and orbit
 +
 
 +
*Situated near the medial canthus
 +
 
 +
*It articulates with the frontal bone, zygomatic bone and maxilla
 +
**Also articulates with the nasal bone in ruminants and the horse
 +
**Also articulates with the palatine bone in carnivores
 +
 
 +
*Composed of an orbital and facial part separated by supra- and infraorbital margins
 +
 
 +
*The nasolacrimal duct is present by the margin of the orbital surface
 +
 
 +
*Ventral oblique muscle attaches caudal to the margin of the orbital surface
 +
 
 +
*Nasal surface forms the boundaries of the maxillary and frontal sinuses
 +
 
 +
===Zygomatic Bone (os zygomaticum)===
 +
 
 +
*Lateral and ventral to the lacrimal bone
 +
 
 +
*Forms the orbit and zygomatic arch
 +
 
 +
*Supraorbital margin formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the frontal process of the zygomatic bone
 +
 
 +
*Facial crest present on lateral surface
 +
 
 +
===Incisive Bone (os incisivium)===
 +
 
 +
*Paired
 +
 
 +
*Composed of body, nasal, palatine and alveolar parts
 +
 
 +
*Joins with the maxilla to form the interalveolar margin
 +
 
 +
*Forms the rostral part of the facial section of the skull, the roof of the [[Hard Palate - Anatomy & Physiology|hard palate]] and the opening to the nasal cavity
 +
 
 +
*The alveolar process form conical sockets for the incisor teeth
 +
 
 +
===Palatine Bone (os palatinum)===
 +
 
 +
*Paired
 +
 
 +
*Between the maxilla, sphenoid and pterygoid bones
 +
 
 +
*Composed of a horizontal plate (forms part of the [[Hard Palate - Anatomy & Physiology|hard palate]]), perpendicular plate (forms the dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal meatus) and the choanae
 +
 
 +
*Nasal crest present on the horizontal plate
 +
 
 +
*Palatine sinus present on horizontal plate
 +
 
 +
===Vomer===
 +
 
 +
*Unpaired
 +
 
 +
*Extends from the choanae of the palatine bone to the floor of the nasal cavity
 +
 
 +
*Attavhes to the median nuchal crest
 +
 
 +
*Septal sulcus formed which surrounds nasal cavity
 +
 
 +
===Pterygoid Bone (os pterygoideum)===
 +
 
 +
*Paired
 +
 
 +
*Bordered by the palatine and sphenoid bones
 +
 
 +
*Forms dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal cavity
 +
 
 +
*Pterygoid hamulus present
 +
 
 +
===Maxilla===
 +
 
 +
*Forms most of the facial part of the skull, including the lateral walls of the face, nasal cavity, [[Oral Cavity Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|oral cavity]] and [[Hard Palate - Anatomy & Physiology|hard palate]]
 +
 
 +
*Forms the ventral nasal conchae
 +
 
 +
*It articulates with all of the facial bones as it is the largest bone of the face
 +
 
 +
*The maxillary body encloses the maxillary sinuses and forms the external surface of the face
 +
**Facial crest present
 +
 
 +
*Infraorbital foramen palpatable
 +
 
 +
*Conchal crest on nasal surface where the ventral nasal conchae attaches
 +
 
 +
*Lacrimal canal opens into the lacrimal foramen on the nasal surface
 +
 
 +
*Pterygopalatine surfaces are the caudal part of the maxilla which terminate in the maxillary tubercle where the sphenopalatine, maxillary and caudal palatine foramen are present
 +
 
 +
*Alveolar processes present separated by interalveolar septa
 +
 
 +
*Palatine process form the [[Hard Palate - Anatomy & Physiology|hard palate]] with the palatine bone
 +
 
 +
*Palatine fissure formed at the articulation with the incisive bone
 +
 
 +
*Nasal surface of palatine process froms the nasal crest and encloses part of the palatine sinuses
 +
 
 +
*Oral surface has numerous palatine foramina present
 +
[[Image:Cow Mandible.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Mandible of the Cow in situ - Copyright RVC]]
 +
===Mandible (mandibula)===
 +
 
 +
*The manidble can be divided into the body and the ramus
 +
 
 +
*The body of the mandible supports the incisor teeth (rostrally) and cheek teeth (caudally)
 +
**The section of the body which does not support any teeth is called the interalveolar margin or diastema
 +
**Mandibular canal present
 +
**Mental foramen present
 +
**Facial notch on ventral surface where the parotid duct (in herbivores) and facial vessels run
 +
[[Image:Parrot Mandible.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Mandible of the Parrot - Copyright RVC]]
 +
*The ramus extend from the caudal end of the body dorsally towards the zygomatic arch
 +
**The masseter muscle attaches to the lateral surface at the masseteric fossa
 +
**The medial pterygoid attaches to teh medial surface at the pterygoid fossa
 +
**The angle of the mandible terminates dorsally in the condylar process and the coronoid process which are separated by the mandibular notch
 +
**The temporal muscle inserts onto the coronoid head
 +
**The condylar process articulates with the mandibular process of the skull (see [[Mastication#Jaw Articulation|here]])
 +
 
 +
==Major Foramen and Canals==
 +
 
 +
*Jugular Foramen
 +
**Located either side of basilar part of occipital bone
 +
**Adjacent to tympanic bulla
 +
**Glossopharyngeal nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN IX]]), vagus nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN X]]) and accessory nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN XI]])
 +
**Internal carotid artery
 +
[[Image:Foramen Magnum.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Foramen Magnum (Horse) - Copyright RVC]]
 +
*Foramen Magnum
 +
**Formed by occipital bones
 +
**Spinal cord's passage to the neck and body
 +
**Alar ligaments run through
 +
**Vertebral arteries run through
 +
**Spinal arteries run through
 +
**Tectoral membranes run through
 +
 
 +
*Hypoglossal Canal
 +
**Between paracondylar and condylar processes on lateral part of occipital bone
 +
**Hypoglossal nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN XII]])
 +
**Condylar artery and vein
 +
 
 +
*Optic Chiasma
 +
**Runs in transverse depression behind sphenoid rostrum on presphenoid bone
 +
**Path of the optic nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN II]])
 +
 
 +
*Optic Canal
 +
**Ends from optic chiasma over wings of the presphenoid bones
 +
**Optic nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN II]])
 +
 
 +
*Oval Foramen
 +
**Caudal wing of the basisphenoid bones
 +
**Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN V3]])
 +
 
 +
*Alar Canal
 +
**Rostral border of the basisphenoid bone at the base of the pterygoid processes
 +
**Composed of the caudal alar foramen, rostral alar foramen and the small alar foramen
 +
**Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN V2]])
 +
**Temporal artery
 +
 
 +
*Stylomastoid Foramen
 +
**Situated on the petrosal part of the temporal bone
 +
**Facial nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN VII]])
 +
 
 +
*Ethmoidal Foramen
 +
**Perforate the orbital part of the frontal bone
 +
**Olfactory nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN I]])
 +
**Ethmoidal artery and vein
 +
[[Image:Cow Skull dorsal view.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cow skull (supraorbital foramen, temporal line, supramastoid crest and supraorbital groove labelled) - Copyright RVC]]
 +
*Orbital Fissure
 +
**On the presphenoid bone
 +
**Opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN V1]]), occulomotor nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN III]]), trochlear nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN IV]]) and the abducens nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN VI]])
 +
 
 +
*Supraorbital Foramen
 +
**On the frontal bone
 +
**Opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN V1]])
 +
**Frontal artery and vein
 +
 
 +
*Infraorbital Foramen
 +
**On the maxilla
 +
**Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN V2]])
 +
**Infraorbital artery and vein
 +
[[Image:Mental and Infraorbital Foramen.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Mental and Infraorbital foramen (dog) - Copyright RVC]]
 +
*Mental Foramen
 +
**On rostral end of the mandible
 +
**Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN V3]])
 +
**Mental artery and vein
 +
 
 +
*Palatine Canal
 +
**Runs through horizontal plate of palatine bone
 +
**Palatine artery
 +
**Palatine vein
 +
**Palatine nerves
 +
 
 +
*Internal Acoustic Meatus
 +
**Medial surface of the petrosal part of the temporal bone
 +
**Facial opening for the facial nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN VII]])
 +
**Cochlear opening, dorsal vestibule opening and the ventral vestibule opening for the vestibulocochlear nerve ([[Nervous System - CNS - Anatomy & Physiology#Innervation - Cranial Nerves|CN VIII]])
 +
 
 +
==Species Differences==
 +
[[Image:Pug skull.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Brachycephalic skull (Pug) - Copyright RVC]]
 +
===Canine===
 +
*Dogs have different skull lengths depending on breed
 +
**Mesocephalic dogs have average conformation
 +
**Dolichocephalic dogs have longer skull lengths
 +
**Brachycephalic dogs have shorter skull lengths
 +
 
 +
*2 halves of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement
 +
 
 +
*External sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest
 +
 
 +
*Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous foramen and carotid canal
 +
 
 +
*No foramen lacernum
 +
 
 +
*Styloid process absent
 +
 
 +
*Dorsal margin of orbit formed by the orbital ligament
 +
[[Image:Lion skull.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Feline skull (Lion) - Copyright RVC]]
 +
===Feline===
 +
*The mandible appears globular in shape
 +
 
 +
*Large orbits with complete bony margins
 +
 
 +
*Large tympanic bulla which can be palpated
 +
 
 +
*2 halves of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement
 +
 
 +
*Weak external sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest
 +
 
 +
*Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous foramen and carotid canal
 +
 
 +
*No foramen lacernum
 +
 
 +
*Styloid process absent
 +
 
 +
*Dorsal margin of orbit formed by the orbital ligament which is ossified
 +
 
 +
*Interpareital bone does not fuse entirely in the adult
 +
[[Image:Horse Skeleton.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Horse Skeleton - Copyright Nottingham]]
 +
 
 +
===Equine===
 +
 
 +
*Weak external sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest
 +
 
 +
*Internal sagittal crest on the internal surface of the pareital bone
 +
 
 +
*Long skull length
 +
 
 +
*Orbit placed more laterally with a complete bony rim
 +
 
 +
*Strong zygomatic arch which continues on to form the facial crest
 +
 
 +
*Deep nasoincisive notch
 +
 
 +
*Prominent hamular process
 +
 
 +
*Large mandible
 +
**Vascular notch on mandible
 +
**High ramus
 +
 
 +
*Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous notch and carotid notch
 +
 
 +
*Foramen lacernum present
 +
 
 +
*Zygomatic process articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone
 +
 
 +
*Three rows of ethmoturbinates present
 +
[[Image:Sheep skull.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Sheep skull - Copyright RVC]]
 +
===Ruminant===
 +
*Skull is short and wide
 +
 
 +
*[[Anatomy & Physiology of the Horn|Cornual]] process on frontal bone
 +
 
 +
*Nuchal crest reduced to nuchal line
 +
 
 +
*Prominent temporal line
 +
 
 +
*Elevated orbital ring which is complete
 +
 
 +
*No facial crest
 +
 
 +
*Prominent tympanic bullae
 +
 
 +
*Nasoincisive notch present
 +
 
 +
*Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen
 +
 
 +
*No foramen lacernum
 +
 
 +
*Petrosal and tympanic parts of the temporal bone fused to the squamous part
 +
 
 +
*Zygomatic process articulates with the frontal process of the zygomatic bone
 +
[[Image:Pig skull.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Pig skull showing tusks - Copyright RVC]]
 +
===Porcine===
 +
*Thick nucal crest
 +
 
 +
*Internal sagittal crest on the internal surface of the pareital bone
 +
 
 +
*Prominent temporal line
 +
 
 +
*Orbit is incomplete and small
 +
 
 +
*Strong and deep zygomatic arch
 +
 
 +
*Large tympanic bullae
 +
 
 +
*High caudal part of the skull
 +
 
 +
*Styloid process absent
 +
[[Image:Bird skull.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Bird skull - Copyright RVC]]
 +
===Avian===
 +
*Pneumatised skull bones
 +
**Spaces in skull bones which connect to airways in the head rather than the air sacs
 +
 
 +
*Large orbits
 +
 
 +
*Skull plates are separated by spongy bone
 +
 
 +
*A single occipital condyle articulates with the atlas allowing more rotation of the head
 +
 
 +
*In parrots, the nasal bone and frontal bone are joined by a flexible cartliage structure allowing greater jaw opening which is called the craniofacial hinge. This allows kinesis to occur.
 +
 
 +
*Thin jugal arch (equivalent to zygomatic arch)
 +
 
 +
*Middle ear contains only the columella (equivalent to the stapes)
 +
 
 +
==Links==
 +
 
 +
[[Deglutition]]
 +
 
 +
[[Mastication]]
 +
 
 +
<big><center>[[Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology#Introduction|'''BACK TO TOP''']]</center></big>
 +
<big><center>[[Musculoskeletal System - Anatomy & Physiology|'''BACK TO MUSCULOSKELETAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY''']]</center></big>

Revision as of 16:33, 30 July 2008

BACK TO MUSCULOSKELETAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Introduction

Deer Skull - Copyright nabrown RVC

The shape and size of the skull varies widely, not only between species but also with age, breed and sex of similar species. The skull is divided into three components- the neurocranium, the dermatocranium and the viscerocranium. The skull also includes the hyoid apparatus, mandible, ossicles of the middle ear and the cartilage of the larynx, nose and ear. The skull protects the brain and head against injury and supports the structures of the face. In some animals the skull is also used for defensive actions, for example in horned ungulates such as red deer stags.

The neurocranium develops from the neural crest and mesoderm and undergoes endochondral ossification. It lies ventral to the brain.

The dermatocranium lies dorsal to the brain and develops from the neural crest and mesoderm. It undergoes intramembranous ossification.

The viscerocranium is the pharyngeal skeleton. It is derived only from the neural crest and undergoes endochondral and intramembranous ossification.

The various facial muscles attach onto the skull in different places depending on their function. Movement of the external apendages, mastication and facial expressions all rely on the movement of the facial muscles.

Structure

  • The skull is made of many smaller bones
  • Most of the skull bones are paired
  • Cartilage or fibrous tissue separates the bones of the skull in the young animal
  • Once growth has ceased, the sutures begin to ossify

Function

  • Protection of brain
  • Support facial muscles by providing origin and insertion sites
  • Foramen provide entry and exit places for the vasculature and nervous system
  • Defense

Bones of the Skull

Occipital Bone (os occipitale)

  • Forms the nuchal wall
  • Forms the foramen magnum
  • Basilar part (pars basilaris)
    • Caudal base of the cranium
    • Rostral to foramen magnum
    • Joined by cartilagenous suture to basisphenoid bone
    • Muscular tubercules on ventral surface where the flexors of the head and neck attach
    • Caudal cranial fossa enclose the pons and medulla oblongata
  • Squamous part (pars squamosa)
    • Dorsal to lateral parts and occipital condyles
    • Nuchal crest present
      • Easily palpable
      • Landmark for collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
    • External occipital protuberances present which provide muscle attachment sites for the nuchal ligament
  • Lateral parts (partes laterales)
    • Lateral borders of foramen magnum
    • Occipital condyles present which articulate with the atlas to form the atlanto-occipital joint
    • Paracondylar process present which provides muscle attachment sights for muscles of the head
    • Hypoglossal canal

Sphenoid Bone (os sphenoidale)

Ventral view pig skull (vomer, occipital condyle, sphenoid, pterygoid bone, hamulus labelled)- Copyright RVC
  • Forms the base of the neurocranium
  • Composed of a body and wings
  • Bones separated by cartilage which ossifies with age
  • Presphenoid (os praespenoidale)
    • Rostrally
    • Rostral caudal fossa
    • Hollow body with sphenoid sinuses located inside
    • Sphenoid rostrum present
    • Optic chiasma
    • Optic Canal
  • Basisphenoid (os basispenoidalis)
    • Caudally
    • Median cranial fossa
    • The wings oppose the temporal bone, maxilla, orbit and the brain
    • Wings form the oval foramen and other foramen (see species differences) carotid notch, oval foramen and spinous notch (in the horse)
    • Pterygoid processes present
    • Alar canal (rostral and caudal alar foramen)

Temporal Bone (os temporale)

  • Composed of squamous, petrosal and tympanic parts
  • Lateral wall of the cranial cavity
  • Articulates with the frontal, pareital and sphenoid bones
Zygomatic Arch (Dog) - Copyright RVC
  • Zygomatic process
    • On squamous part
    • Joins the temporal process of the zygomatic bone to form the zygomatic arch
    • Forms the articulating surface of the temperomandibular joint
  • Articular tubercle present
  • Mandibular fossa present
  • Occipital process and retrotympanic process surrounds the external acoustic meatus
  • Petrosal part encloses the inner ear
    • Internal acoustic meatus present
    • Forms mastoid process ventrally
    • Styloid process present which attaches the hyoid apparatus
    • Stylomastoid foramen present
  • Tympanic part is the ventral section of the temporal bone
    • Tympanic bulla present
    • Tympanic membrane separates tympanic cavity from external acoustic meatus
    • Encloses auditory ossicle dorsally
    • Musculotubal canal where tensors of the soft palate originate

Frontal Bone (os frontale)

  • Paired
  • Joined by the interfrontal suture
  • Between the cranium and the face
  • Encloses the frontal sinuses
  • The nasal and lacrimal bones border the frontal squama section
    • Forms the zygomatic process laterally
    • Forms the dorsal part of the orbit
    • Lacrimal gland present
    • Temporal line present which extends into the external sagittal crest
    • Cornual processes in horned ruminants
  • The nasal section is the rostral part of the frontal bone
  • Orbital part is perforated by the ethmoidal foramen
    • Medially the dorsal oblique muscle of the eyeball attaches
  • Temporal part provides the muscle attachments for the temporalis muscle

Parietal Bone (os parietale)

  • Paired
  • Forms the dorsolateral wall of the cranium
  • Occipital bone caudally
  • Frontal bone rostrally
  • Composed of a pareital plane, temporal plane and a nuchal plane (in the ox)
  • Internally the grooves and ridges correspond with the gyri and sulci of the brain
  • Interpareital bone between the occipital bone and the pareital bone
    • Fuses with age

Ethmoid Bone (os ethmoidale)

Nasal Cavities - Copyright David Bainbridge
  • Forms part of the cranial and facial parts of the skull
  • Located deep in the orbit
  • External lamina consists of the roof plate, floor plate and paired orbital plates
  • The ethmoid bone is separated from the cranial cavity by the cribiform plate
    • Numerous small foramina where the olfactory nerve (CN I) passes through
  • The perpendicular plate splits the ethmoid into two halves
  • The ethmoid larbyrinth prodrudes from the ethmoid tubes
    • Composed of two rows of ethmoturbinates and air filled ethmoidal meatuses
    • Secondary ethmoturbinates may also be present
  • Ethmoturbinates divided into endoturbinates and ectoturbinates
    • The first endoturbinate forms the dorsal nasal conchae
    • The second endoturbinate froms the middle nasal conchae
  • The endoturbinates form 3 nasal meatuses
    • Dorsal nasal meatus
    • Middle nasal meatus
    • Ventral nasal meatus

Nasal Bone (os nasale)

  • Paired
  • Forms the roof of the nasal cavity
  • Dorsal nasal conchae attach to the ethmoidal crest on the internal surface
  • Rostral suture form the apex
  • Between the nasal and incisive bones is the nasoincisive notch

Lacrimal Bone (os lacrimale)

  • Forms part of the lateral wall of the face and orbit
  • Situated near the medial canthus
  • It articulates with the frontal bone, zygomatic bone and maxilla
    • Also articulates with the nasal bone in ruminants and the horse
    • Also articulates with the palatine bone in carnivores
  • Composed of an orbital and facial part separated by supra- and infraorbital margins
  • The nasolacrimal duct is present by the margin of the orbital surface
  • Ventral oblique muscle attaches caudal to the margin of the orbital surface
  • Nasal surface forms the boundaries of the maxillary and frontal sinuses

Zygomatic Bone (os zygomaticum)

  • Lateral and ventral to the lacrimal bone
  • Forms the orbit and zygomatic arch
  • Supraorbital margin formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the frontal process of the zygomatic bone
  • Facial crest present on lateral surface

Incisive Bone (os incisivium)

  • Paired
  • Composed of body, nasal, palatine and alveolar parts
  • Joins with the maxilla to form the interalveolar margin
  • Forms the rostral part of the facial section of the skull, the roof of the hard palate and the opening to the nasal cavity
  • The alveolar process form conical sockets for the incisor teeth

Palatine Bone (os palatinum)

  • Paired
  • Between the maxilla, sphenoid and pterygoid bones
  • Composed of a horizontal plate (forms part of the hard palate), perpendicular plate (forms the dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal meatus) and the choanae
  • Nasal crest present on the horizontal plate
  • Palatine sinus present on horizontal plate

Vomer

  • Unpaired
  • Extends from the choanae of the palatine bone to the floor of the nasal cavity
  • Attavhes to the median nuchal crest
  • Septal sulcus formed which surrounds nasal cavity

Pterygoid Bone (os pterygoideum)

  • Paired
  • Bordered by the palatine and sphenoid bones
  • Forms dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal cavity
  • Pterygoid hamulus present

Maxilla

  • Forms most of the facial part of the skull, including the lateral walls of the face, nasal cavity, oral cavity and hard palate
  • Forms the ventral nasal conchae
  • It articulates with all of the facial bones as it is the largest bone of the face
  • The maxillary body encloses the maxillary sinuses and forms the external surface of the face
    • Facial crest present
  • Infraorbital foramen palpatable
  • Conchal crest on nasal surface where the ventral nasal conchae attaches
  • Lacrimal canal opens into the lacrimal foramen on the nasal surface
  • Pterygopalatine surfaces are the caudal part of the maxilla which terminate in the maxillary tubercle where the sphenopalatine, maxillary and caudal palatine foramen are present
  • Alveolar processes present separated by interalveolar septa
  • Palatine process form the hard palate with the palatine bone
  • Palatine fissure formed at the articulation with the incisive bone
  • Nasal surface of palatine process froms the nasal crest and encloses part of the palatine sinuses
  • Oral surface has numerous palatine foramina present
Mandible of the Cow in situ - Copyright RVC

Mandible (mandibula)

  • The manidble can be divided into the body and the ramus
  • The body of the mandible supports the incisor teeth (rostrally) and cheek teeth (caudally)
    • The section of the body which does not support any teeth is called the interalveolar margin or diastema
    • Mandibular canal present
    • Mental foramen present
    • Facial notch on ventral surface where the parotid duct (in herbivores) and facial vessels run
Mandible of the Parrot - Copyright RVC
  • The ramus extend from the caudal end of the body dorsally towards the zygomatic arch
    • The masseter muscle attaches to the lateral surface at the masseteric fossa
    • The medial pterygoid attaches to teh medial surface at the pterygoid fossa
    • The angle of the mandible terminates dorsally in the condylar process and the coronoid process which are separated by the mandibular notch
    • The temporal muscle inserts onto the coronoid head
    • The condylar process articulates with the mandibular process of the skull (see here)

Major Foramen and Canals

  • Jugular Foramen
    • Located either side of basilar part of occipital bone
    • Adjacent to tympanic bulla
    • Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), vagus nerve (CN X) and accessory nerve (CN XI)
    • Internal carotid artery
Foramen Magnum (Horse) - Copyright RVC
  • Foramen Magnum
    • Formed by occipital bones
    • Spinal cord's passage to the neck and body
    • Alar ligaments run through
    • Vertebral arteries run through
    • Spinal arteries run through
    • Tectoral membranes run through
  • Hypoglossal Canal
    • Between paracondylar and condylar processes on lateral part of occipital bone
    • Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
    • Condylar artery and vein
  • Optic Chiasma
    • Runs in transverse depression behind sphenoid rostrum on presphenoid bone
    • Path of the optic nerve (CN II)
  • Optic Canal
    • Ends from optic chiasma over wings of the presphenoid bones
    • Optic nerve (CN II)
  • Oval Foramen
    • Caudal wing of the basisphenoid bones
    • Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3)
  • Alar Canal
    • Rostral border of the basisphenoid bone at the base of the pterygoid processes
    • Composed of the caudal alar foramen, rostral alar foramen and the small alar foramen
    • Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2)
    • Temporal artery
  • Stylomastoid Foramen
    • Situated on the petrosal part of the temporal bone
    • Facial nerve (CN VII)
  • Ethmoidal Foramen
    • Perforate the orbital part of the frontal bone
    • Olfactory nerve (CN I)
    • Ethmoidal artery and vein
Cow skull (supraorbital foramen, temporal line, supramastoid crest and supraorbital groove labelled) - Copyright RVC
  • Orbital Fissure
    • On the presphenoid bone
    • Opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1), occulomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV) and the abducens nerve (CN VI)
  • Supraorbital Foramen
    • On the frontal bone
    • Opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1)
    • Frontal artery and vein
  • Infraorbital Foramen
    • On the maxilla
    • Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2)
    • Infraorbital artery and vein
Mental and Infraorbital foramen (dog) - Copyright RVC
  • Mental Foramen
    • On rostral end of the mandible
    • Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3)
    • Mental artery and vein
  • Palatine Canal
    • Runs through horizontal plate of palatine bone
    • Palatine artery
    • Palatine vein
    • Palatine nerves
  • Internal Acoustic Meatus
    • Medial surface of the petrosal part of the temporal bone
    • Facial opening for the facial nerve (CN VII)
    • Cochlear opening, dorsal vestibule opening and the ventral vestibule opening for the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)

Species Differences

Brachycephalic skull (Pug) - Copyright RVC

Canine

  • Dogs have different skull lengths depending on breed
    • Mesocephalic dogs have average conformation
    • Dolichocephalic dogs have longer skull lengths
    • Brachycephalic dogs have shorter skull lengths
  • 2 halves of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement
  • External sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest
  • Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous foramen and carotid canal
  • No foramen lacernum
  • Styloid process absent
  • Dorsal margin of orbit formed by the orbital ligament
Feline skull (Lion) - Copyright RVC

Feline

  • The mandible appears globular in shape
  • Large orbits with complete bony margins
  • Large tympanic bulla which can be palpated
  • 2 halves of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement
  • Weak external sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest
  • Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous foramen and carotid canal
  • No foramen lacernum
  • Styloid process absent
  • Dorsal margin of orbit formed by the orbital ligament which is ossified
  • Interpareital bone does not fuse entirely in the adult
Horse Skeleton - Copyright Nottingham

Equine

  • Weak external sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest
  • Internal sagittal crest on the internal surface of the pareital bone
  • Long skull length
  • Orbit placed more laterally with a complete bony rim
  • Strong zygomatic arch which continues on to form the facial crest
  • Deep nasoincisive notch
  • Prominent hamular process
  • Large mandible
    • Vascular notch on mandible
    • High ramus
  • Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous notch and carotid notch
  • Foramen lacernum present
  • Zygomatic process articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone
  • Three rows of ethmoturbinates present
Sheep skull - Copyright RVC

Ruminant

  • Skull is short and wide
  • Nuchal crest reduced to nuchal line
  • Prominent temporal line
  • Elevated orbital ring which is complete
  • No facial crest
  • Prominent tympanic bullae
  • Nasoincisive notch present
  • Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen
  • No foramen lacernum
  • Petrosal and tympanic parts of the temporal bone fused to the squamous part
  • Zygomatic process articulates with the frontal process of the zygomatic bone
Pig skull showing tusks - Copyright RVC

Porcine

  • Thick nucal crest
  • Internal sagittal crest on the internal surface of the pareital bone
  • Prominent temporal line
  • Orbit is incomplete and small
  • Strong and deep zygomatic arch
  • Large tympanic bullae
  • High caudal part of the skull
  • Styloid process absent
Bird skull - Copyright RVC

Avian

  • Pneumatised skull bones
    • Spaces in skull bones which connect to airways in the head rather than the air sacs
  • Large orbits
  • Skull plates are separated by spongy bone
  • A single occipital condyle articulates with the atlas allowing more rotation of the head
  • In parrots, the nasal bone and frontal bone are joined by a flexible cartliage structure allowing greater jaw opening which is called the craniofacial hinge. This allows kinesis to occur.
  • Thin jugal arch (equivalent to zygomatic arch)
  • Middle ear contains only the columella (equivalent to the stapes)

Links

Deglutition

Mastication

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