Changes

===Electrolytes===

===Electrolytes===

Sodium, potassium and chloride levels are presently evaluated in a similar manner to mammals. There is a wide variation in normal levels among and within species. High potassium levels generally carry a poor prognosis.

[[Sodium|Sodium]], [[Potassium|potassium]] and [[Chloride|chloride]] levels are presently evaluated in a similar manner to mammals. There is a wide variation in normal levels among and within species. High [[Potassium|potassium]] levels generally carry a poor prognosis.

*Sodium - Sodium of normal reptiles generally varies between 120 and 170 mmol/l and varies between species. Hypernatraemia will occur with dehydration (inadequate uptake or excessive loss of fluid).  Hyponatraemia will occur with gastrointestinal loss (diarrhoea).

*[[Sodium|Sodium]] - [[Sodium|Sodium]] of normal reptiles generally varies between 120 and 170 mmol/l and varies between species. Hypernatraemia will occur with dehydration (inadequate uptake or excessive loss of fluid).  Hyponatraemia will occur with gastrointestinal loss (diarrhoea).

*Potassium - Potassium is generally in the range of 2 to 8 mmol/l. Hypokalaemia in reptiles will occur from inadequate intake or excessive loss (diarrhoea). In mammals hyperkalaemia may occur with excessive potassium intake, decreased secretion or shift from intracellular to extracellular fluid (e.g. severe acidosis).

*[[Potassium|Potassium]] - [[Potassium|Potassium]] is generally in the range of 2 to 8 mmol/l. Hypokalaemia in reptiles will occur from inadequate intake or excessive loss (diarrhoea). In mammals hyperkalaemia may occur with excessive [[Potassium|potassium]] intake, decreased secretion or shift from intracellular to extracellular fluid (e.g. severe acidosis).

*Chloride - Chloride varies in the range of 100 to 150mmol/l. Hypercholoraemia is associated with dehydration and possibly renal failure.

*[[Chloride|Chloride]] - [[Chloride|Chloride]] varies in the range of 100 to 150mmol/l. Hypercholoraemia is associated with dehydration and possibly renal failure.

 

===Glucose===

===Glucose===

Both animal and environmental factors affect levels. Animal factors include species and nutritional status, and environmental factors include ambient temperature and season. Response to environmental cues tends to be species-specific. Glucose values are generally between 3–16 mmol/l. Glucose values in reptiles are presently considered of limited value because any changes tend to be non-specific and not sensitive.  For instance, hypoglycaemia has been associated with starvation, malnutrition, high protein diets, severe liver disease, endocrinopathies and septicaemia. Hypoglycaemia has also been reported to cause tremors, loss of righting reflex, torpor and non-responsive pupils in some reptiles. Other problems, such as hypocalcaemia, are far more common though. Hyperglycaemia may occur with iatrogenic glucocorticoid use or excess delivery of glucose. Diabetes mellitus should also be considered.

Both animal and environmental factors affect levels. Animal factors include species and nutritional status, and environmental factors include ambient temperature and season. Response to environmental cues tends to be species-specific. Glucose values are generally between 3–16 mmol/l. Glucose values in reptiles are presently considered of limited value because any changes tend to be non-specific and not sensitive.  For instance, hypoglycaemia has been associated with starvation, malnutrition, high protein diets, severe liver disease, endocrinopathies and septicaemia. Hypoglycaemia has also been reported to cause tremors, loss of righting reflex, torpor and non-responsive pupils in some reptiles. Other problems, such as hypocalcaemia, are far more common though. Hyperglycaemia may occur with iatrogenic glucocorticoid use or excess delivery of glucose. Diabetes mellitus should also be considered.