Changes

'''Causes''' of acute cystitis include ascending infections, such as metritis, vaginitis and balanoposthitis, infected catheters or trauma due to catheters and prolonged administration of some anticancer drugs such as cyclophosphamide. Chronic cystitis is more likely to have an underlying cause such as [[Urolithiasis|urolithiasis]], polyps, [[Prostatitis|prostatitis]], [[Pyelonephritis|pyelonephritis]] and endocrinopathies such as [[Hyperadrenocorticism|hyperadrenocorticism]].

'''Causes''' of acute cystitis include ascending infections, such as metritis, vaginitis and balanoposthitis, infected catheters or trauma due to catheters and prolonged administration of some anticancer drugs such as cyclophosphamide. Chronic cystitis is more likely to have an underlying cause such as [[Urolithiasis|urolithiasis]], polyps, [[Prostatitis|prostatitis]], [[Pyelonephritis|pyelonephritis]] and endocrinopathies such as [[Hyperadrenocorticism|hyperadrenocorticism]].

Bacterial pathogens which can cause the condition include [[Escherichia coli|''Escherichia coli'']], [[:Category:Staphylococcus species|''Staphylococcus'']], [[:Category:Streptococcus species|''Streptococcus'']] in small animals, [[Corynebacterium renale|''Corynebacterium renale'']] in cattle and ''Eubacterium suis'' in pigs, ''[[Haemophilus haemoglobinophilus]]''

Bacterial pathogens which can cause the condition include [[Escherichia coli|''Escherichia coli'']], [[:Category:Staphylococcus species|''Staphylococcus'']], [[:Category:Streptococcus species|''Streptococcus'']] in small animals, [[Corynebacterium renale|''Corynebacterium renale'']] in cattle and ''Eubacterium suis'' in pigs, ''[[Haemophilus haemoglobinophilus]]'' in dogs.

===Acute cystitis===

===Acute cystitis===

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'''Gross pathology''' includes cloudy urine, hyperaemic and oedematous mucosa, haemorrhages and blood clots and catarrhal exudate on the mucosal surface in severe inflammation

'''Gross pathology''' includes cloudy urine, hyperaemic and oedematous mucosa, haemorrhages and blood clots and catarrhal exudate on the mucosal surface in severe inflammation

'''Histopathology''' will show epithelial degeneration and necrosis, leukocyte infilatration and dilation of submucosal vessels.

'''Histopathology''' will show epithelial degeneration and necrosis, leukocyte infiltration and dilation of submucosal vessels.

===Chronic cystitis===

===Chronic cystitis===

'''Polypoid cystitis''' is the type of chronic cystitis seen in most species. Gross pathology may show polyp like projections from the mucosa that resemble neoplasms. Histopathology may show the mucous membrane to have villous projections covered by epithelium.

'''Polypoid cystitis''' is the type of chronic cystitis seen in most species. Gross pathology may show polyp like projections from the mucosa that resemble neoplasms. Histopathology may show the mucous membrane to have villous projections covered by epithelium.

'''Follicular cystitis''' is a chronic cystitis of unknown aetiology common in the dog. The gross pathology includes grey/white nodular lesions cover the surface of the bladder. Histopathology will show clumps of lymphocytes just beneath the epithelial layer which may be normal or ulcerated.

'''Follicular cystitis''' is a chronic cystitis of unknown aetiology common in the dog. The gross pathology includes grey/white nodular lesions cover the surface of the bladder. Histopathology will show clumps of [[lymphocytes]] just beneath the epithelial layer which may be normal or ulcerated.

===Emphysematous cystitis===

===Emphysematous cystitis===

This occurs in some dogs and cats with diabetes mellitus. The cause is likely related to the fermentation of sugar by glucose-fermenting bacteria.

This occurs in some dogs and cats with [[Diabetes Mellitus|diabetes mellitus]]. The cause is likely related to the fermentation of sugar by glucose-fermenting bacteria.

==Clinical Signs==

==Clinical Signs==

==Diagnosis==

==Diagnosis==

'''Urinanalysis and bacterial culture''' should be performed on all animals presenting with signs of cystitis.  

'''Urinanalysis and bacterial culture''' should be performed on all animals presenting with signs of cystitis.  

Urine should be collected by cystocentesis, urinary catheterisation or free-flow - the ideal method being cystocentesis due to the lack of contamination. One sample should be spun and the '''sediment''' examined for inflammatory cells, bacteria and crystals. Another smaple should be sent for culture. The results of these findings can guide diagnosis.  

Urine should be collected by cystocentesis, urinary catheterisation or free-flow - the ideal method being cystocentesis due to the lack of contamination. One sample should be spun and the '''sediment''' examined for inflammatory cells, bacteria and crystals. Another sample should be sent for culture. The results of these findings can guide diagnosis.  

'''Ultrasound and plain and contrast radiographs''' studies should be performed on the bladder in any chronic cases. Utrasound can help identify  pathology such as uroliths and masses within the bladder. Radiopaque crystals and some bladder masses will be apparent on pneumocystogram studies, but double contrast radiographic studies are required to see radiolucent crystals and the bladder lining in more detail.  

'''Ultrasound and plain and contrast radiographs''' should be performed on the bladder in any chronic cases. Ultrasound can help identify  pathology such as uroliths and masses within the bladder. Radiopaque crystals and some bladder masses will be apparent on pneumocystogram studies, but double contrast radiographic studies are required to see radiolucent crystals and the bladder lining in more detail.  

Haematology and biochemistry may also be useful in detecting underlying disease.  

Haematology and biochemistry may also be useful in detecting underlying disease.  

Treatment may be '''medical''' or '''surgical''', dependant on the '''type''' of cystitis and the '''underlying cause'''. Acute cystitis is often bacterial in origin and therefore managed medically. Antibiotics should be selected in accordance with culture results. Chronic cystitis is more likely to have an underlying cause (such as uroliths or polyps) that requires further diagnostics or surgical treatment.  

Treatment may be '''medical''' or '''surgical''', dependant on the '''type''' of cystitis and the '''underlying cause'''. Acute cystitis is often bacterial in origin and therefore managed medically. Antibiotics should be selected in accordance with culture results. Chronic cystitis is more likely to have an underlying cause (such as uroliths or polyps) that requires further diagnostics or surgical treatment.  

If an underlying urolithiasis is diagnosed then treatment varies in depending on which calculus is present. Some case may be managed medically with antibiotics and diet change. This can also cause the resolution of polyps in some cases, however surgery is normally indicated for the removal the majority of uroliths and chronic polyps.

If an underlying [[urolithiasis]] is diagnosed then treatment varies in depending on which calculus is present. Some case may be managed medically with antibiotics and diet change. This can also cause the resolution of polyps in some cases, however surgery is normally indicated for the removal the majority of uroliths and chronic polyps.

The procedure is a '''ventral cystotomy''' which allows good visualisation of the bladder (achieved by everting it), removal of an calculi and complete surgical excision of any polyps present. The surgery does not involve the placement of any intraluminal sutures and instead uses haemostats to provide haemostasis. Therefore [[Haemorrhage|haemorrhage]] and clot formation are a risk. As any clots could potentially cause a urinary tract obstruction, the risk should be reduced by using fluid therapy to encourage urination. It is important to send any excisional biopsies for histopathological analysis to confirm a diagnosis of polypoid cystitis. Any uroliths should sent for bacterial culture.  

The procedure is a '''ventral cystotomy''' which allows good visualisation of the bladder (achieved by everting it), removal of any calculi and complete surgical excision of any polyps present. The surgery does not involve the placement of any intraluminal sutures and instead uses haemostats to provide haemostasis. Therefore [[Haemorrhage|haemorrhage]] and clot formation are a risk. As any clots could potentially cause a urinary tract obstruction, the risk should be reduced by using fluid therapy to encourage urination. It is important to send any excisional biopsies for histopathological analysis to confirm a diagnosis of polypoid cystitis. Any uroliths should sent for bacterial culture.  

==Prognosis==

==Prognosis==

RVC staff (2009) '''Urogenital System''' RVC Integrated BVetMed Course, ''Royal Veterinary College''

RVC staff (2009) '''Urogenital System''' RVC Integrated BVetMed Course, ''Royal Veterinary College''

[[Category:Lower Urinary Tract - Pathology]]

[[Category:Lower Urinary Tract - Pathology]]

[[Category:To Do - Urinary]]

[[Category:Urological Diseases - Dog]]

[[Category: To Do - Siobhan Brade]]

[[Category:Urological Diseases - Cat]]

[[Category:To Do - Manson review]]

[[Category:Expert Review - Small Animal]]