Changes

Visual communication involves facial and body postures, as well as the visual aspects of certain behaviour such as spray marking and clawing. In general, visual communication is operates over a limited range, in line of sight and is rapidly modified. This gives the signaller a great deal of control over the signal, which can be changed according to the response it elicits. Visual signalling is less effective at night, in adverse weather conditions and dense undergrowth. The main disadvantage of visual communication is that it must be delivered face to face with a competitor, which increases the risk of conflict and injury.  

Visual communication involves facial and body postures, as well as the visual aspects of certain behaviour such as spray marking and clawing. In general, visual communication is operates over a limited range, in line of sight and is rapidly modified. This gives the signaller a great deal of control over the signal, which can be changed according to the response it elicits. Visual signalling is less effective at night, in adverse weather conditions and dense undergrowth. The main disadvantage of visual communication is that it must be delivered face to face with a competitor, which increases the risk of conflict and injury.  

Visual communication in cats therefore tends to be vivid. '''Whole body signals''' are used to make the signaller appear larger and more threatening, or smaller and less threatening. The most powerful signals are those at the extreme, such as the side-on body posture with arched back and tail erect. ''In the dog, rolling onto the back is considered to be a submissive behaviour intended to appease an opponent during a conflict. During such an interaction, the opponent may approach, stand close to or investigate the individual that is showing a submissive roll. The submissive individual is in a position of extreme vulnerability.  After a conflict, dogs that are part of the same social group will engage in friendly post-conflict resolution behaviour in order to reaffirm a relationship that is essential to proper cooperation within the group.''(cut out)

Visual communication in cats therefore tends to be vivid. '''Whole body signals''' are used to make the signaller appear larger and more threatening, or smaller and less threatening. The most powerful signals are those at the extreme, such as the side-on body posture with arched back and tail erect.  

In cats, however, the intention of all body posture signalling during a conflict is to '''maintain distance between individuals''', either by intimidating an opponent into a retreat, or by indicating such a low level of threat that an opponent has no need for an approach. Also unlike dog, the roll is not a position of complete vulnerability in cats, and in this position the cat is able to make very good use of its teeth and all sets of claws. After a conflict, both parties go their separate ways and so there is no need for post-conflict resolution.  

The intention of all body posture signalling during a conflict is to '''maintain distance between individuals''', either by intimidating an opponent into a retreat, or by indicating such a low level of threat that an opponent has no need for an approach. The roll is not a position of complete vulnerability in cats, and in this position the cat is able to make very good use of its teeth and all sets of claws. After a conflict, both parties go their separate ways and so there is no need for post-conflict resolution.  

'''Facial posture''' is extremely important in conveying momentary changes in the emotional state of the cat. Changes in ear position, pupil dilation and the display of teeth are not paralleled by body posture changes, since these are slower to accomplish, especially one the animal has adopted a fully erect or very low body position.

'''Facial posture''' is extremely important in conveying momentary changes in the emotional state of the cat. Changes in ear position, pupil dilation and the display of teeth are not paralleled by body posture changes, since these are slower to accomplish, especially one the animal has adopted a fully erect or very low body position.

Vocal communication includes a wide range of sounds from quiet purrs and trills to loud distress vocalisations. Vocal signals can vary from short to long range, but are always omnidirectional and carry a risk of being detected by cats other than the intended recipient. Vocal communication can be used at a distance in any weather or lighting conditions.

Vocal communication includes a wide range of sounds from quiet purrs and trills to loud distress vocalisations. Vocal signals can vary from short to long range, but are always omnidirectional and carry a risk of being detected by cats other than the intended recipient. Vocal communication can be used at a distance in any weather or lighting conditions.

In general sounds that are '''produced with the mouth closed''', such as purrs, trills and chirrups, are '''distance-reducing signals'''. The same is true of vocalisations that are produced with the mouth initially open but closing whilst the sound is produced, such as the miaow. Strained intensity vocalisation that are '''made with the mouth open'' throughout the sound are generally '''distance increasing signals or signs of distress''', such as growls, hisses, spits, snarls and shrieks (Kiley-Worthington, 1984).  

In general sounds that are '''produced with the mouth closed''', such as purrs, trills and chirrups, are '''distance-reducing signals'''. The same is true of vocalisations that are produced with the mouth initially open but closing whilst the sound is produced, such as the miaow. Strained intensity vocalisation that are '''made with the mouth open'' throughout the sound are generally '''distance increasing signals or signs of distress''', such as growls, hisses, spits, snarls and shrieks<ref>Kiley-Worthingon, M. (1984) Animal language? Vocal communication of some ungulates, canids and felids. ''Acta Zoologica Fennica''. 171, 83-88.</ref>.  

==Olfactory communication==

==Olfactory communication==

Olfactory communication involves the deposition of scent marks in the environment to convey a signal indirectly to another individual. Scent signals are persistent, localised and indirect. They cannot be removed by the signaller once they have been deposited and thus they can convey information about the presence of the signaller that may be to its detriment. For example, rodents have been shown to exhibit unconditioned fear and avoidance behaviour in response to feline odours (Dielenberg et al., 2001). In a further twist, ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' infection in rodents has been shown to have a highly specific effect on this aversive response, producing not just a loss of fear of feline urine pheromone odours, but also an attraction to them (Vyas et al., 2007). This enables parasite to continue its life cycle by infection of its feline definitive host. The behavioural changes seen are completely specific to feline odours, with other fear and conditioning responses remaining unaffected. Scent signals can also carry a considerable distance, as is the case in urinary scent marks by females during the reproductive season.  

Olfactory communication involves the deposition of scent marks in the environment to convey a signal indirectly to another individual. Scent signals are persistent, localised and indirect. They cannot be removed by the signaller once they have been deposited and thus they can convey information about the presence of the signaller that may be to its detriment. For example, rodents have been shown to exhibit unconditioned fear and avoidance behaviour in response to feline odours<ref>Dielenberg, R.A., Hunt, G.E., McGregor, I.S. (2001) When a rat smells a cat': The distribution of Fos immunoreactivity in rat brain following exposure to a predatory odor. ''Neuroscience''. 104(4), 1085-1097.</ref>. In a further twist, ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' infection in rodents has been shown to have a highly specific effect on this aversive response, producing not just a loss of fear of feline urine pheromone odours, but also an attraction to them<ref>Vyas, A., Kim, S., Giacomini, N., Boothroyd, J.C.,. Sapolsky, R.M., (2007) Behavioral changes induced by Toxoplasma infection of rodents are highly specific to aversion of cat odors. ''PNAS''. 104(5), 6442-6447.</ref>. This enables parasite to continue its life cycle by infection of its feline definitive host. The behavioural changes seen are completely specific to feline odours, with other fear and conditioning responses remaining unaffected. Scent signals can also carry a considerable distance, as is the case in urinary scent marks by females during the reproductive season.  

Scent signals carry both information and meaning. The information relates to the signaller; its identity, health and reproductive state. The personal identification element of the signal has common features between claw marks, spray marks and facial/flank marks, so that the recipient of any of these signals will be aware of which individual is responsible. Previous experience with that individual adds value to this information. Meaning is conveyed in the position and type of signal used.  

Scent signals carry both information and meaning. The information relates to the signaller; its identity, health and reproductive state. The personal identification element of the signal has common features between claw marks, spray marks and facial/flank marks, so that the recipient of any of these signals will be aware of which individual is responsible. Previous experience with that individual adds value to this information. Meaning is conveyed in the position and type of signal used.  

In cats, pheromone signals are composed of combinations of fatty acids that are deposited together on a scent marked site. Cat urine also contains the strong smelling compound 3-methyl-3-methylbutan-1-ol (MMB), which a chemical signalling function. This is produced by the action of the enzyme cauxin, which hydrolyses the chemical felinine that is synthesised in the [[liver]] and excreted in urine.

In cats, pheromone signals are composed of combinations of fatty acids that are deposited together on a scent marked site. Cat urine also contains the strong smelling compound 3-methyl-3-methylbutan-1-ol (MMB), which a chemical signalling function. This is produced by the action of the enzyme cauxin, which hydrolyses the chemical felinine that is synthesised in the [[liver]] and excreted in urine.

The recipient of the signal will sniff the location, and may perform a [[Flehmen behaviour]] in order to draw a larger quantity of pheromone through ducts opening form the roof of the mouth and floor of the nasal cavity into a specialised chemosensory organ called the [[vomeronasal organ (VNO)]]. The VNO consists of a pair of 1-2cm long tubular organs in the [[Hard Palate|hard palate]]. Once in the VNO pheromone chemicals bind to a pheromone binding protein before being presented to cell-surface receptors. Signals from the VNO are directed toward primitive brain structures such as the amygdala, that are involved in subconscious changes in mood, emotion and motivation.

The recipient of the signal will sniff the location, and may perform a [[Flehmen behaviour]] in order to draw a larger quantity of pheromone through ducts opening form the roof of the mouth and floor of the nasal cavity into a specialised chemosensory organ called the [[vomeronasal organ (VNO)]]. The VNO consists of a pair of 1-2cm long tubular organs in the [[Hard Palate|hard palate]]. Once in the VNO pheromone chemicals bind to a pheromone binding protein before being presented to cell-surface receptors. Signals from the VNO are directed toward primitive brain structures such as the amygdala, that are involved in subconscious changes in mood, emotion and motivation.

===Spray Marking===

===Spray Marking===