Changes

==Additional tests==

==Additional tests==

===Amylase===

===Amylase===

[[Amylase|Amylase]] production and secretion is not restricted to the pancreas and may originate from several areas in the gastrointestinal tract of many reptiles. [[Amylase|Amylase]] values vary between reptile species and individuals. Increased levels may be useful as a diagnostic indicator in some species but its value in snakes has to be shown.

Amylase production and secretion is not restricted to the pancreas and may originate from several areas in the gastrointestinal tract of many reptiles. Amylase values vary between reptile species and individuals. Increased levels may be useful as a diagnostic indicator in some species but its value in snakes has to be shown.

===Bile acid===

===Bile acid===

[[Bile acids in lizards|Bile acid]] metabolism is presently poorly understood in reptiles. [[Bile acids in lizards|Bile acids]] have been poorly studied and are currently poor diagnostic indicators but further use and research may indicate their usefulness. Normal upper limits of [[Bile acids in lizards|bile acids]] levels in reptiles vary between 10 and 70 µmol/l. [[Bile acids in lizards|Bile acid]] levels in reptiles may be indicators of reduced hepatic function.

Bile acid metabolism is presently poorly understood in reptiles. Bile acids have been poorly studied and are currently poor diagnostic indicators but further use and research may indicate their usefulness. Normal upper limits of bile acids levels in reptiles vary between 10 and 70 µmol/l. Bile acid levels in reptiles may be indicators of reduced hepatic function.

===Electrolytes===

===Electrolytes===

[[Sodium|Sodium]], [[Potassium|potassium]] and [[Chloride|chloride]] levels are presently evaluated in a similar manner to mammals. There is a wide variation in normal levels among and within species. High [[Potassium|potassium]] levels generally carry a poor prognosis.

Sodium, potassium and chloride levels are presently evaluated in a similar manner to mammals. There is a wide variation in normal levels among and within species. High potassium levels generally carry a poor prognosis.

*[[Sodium|Sodium]] - [[Sodium|Sodium]] of normal reptiles generally varies between 120 and 170 mmol/l and varies between species. Hypernatraemia will occur with dehydration (inadequate uptake or excessive loss of fluid).  Hyponatraemia will occur with gastrointestinal loss (diarrhoea).

*Sodium; the sodium level of normal reptiles generally varies between 120 and 170 mmol/l and varies between species. Hypernatraemia will occur with dehydration (inadequate uptake or excessive loss of fluid).  Hyponatraemia will occur with gastrointestinal loss (diarrhoea).

*[[Potassium|Potassium]] - [[Potassium|Potassium]] is generally in the range of 2 to 8 mmol/l. Hypokalaemia in reptiles will occur from inadequate intake or excessive loss (diarrhoea). In mammals hyperkalaemia may occur with excessive [[Potassium|potassium]] intake, decreased secretion or shift from intracellular to extracellular fluid (e.g. severe acidosis).

*Potassium; Potassium is generally in the range of 2 to 8 mmol/l. Hypokalaemia in reptiles will occur from inadequate intake or excessive loss (diarrhoea). In mammals hyperkalaemia may occur with excessive potassium intake, decreased secretion or shift from intracellular to extracellular fluid (e.g. severe acidosis).

*[[Chloride|Chloride]] - [[Chloride|Chloride]] varies in the range of 100 to 150mmol/l. Hypercholoraemia is associated with dehydration and possibly renal failure.

*Chloride; Chloride varies in the range of 100 to 150mmol/l. Hypercholoraemia is associated with dehydration and possibly renal failure.

===Glucose===

===Glucose===

Both animal and environmental factors affect levels. Animal factors include species and nutritional status, and environmental factors include ambient temperature and season. Response to environmental cues tends to be species-specific. [[Glucose|Glucose]] values are generally between 3–16 mmol/l. [[Glucose|Glucose]] values in reptiles are presently considered of limited value because any changes tend to be non-specific and not sensitive.  For instance, hypoglycaemia has been associated with starvation, malnutrition, high protein diets, severe liver disease, endocrinopathies and septicaemia. Hypoglycaemia has also been reported to cause tremors, loss of righting reflex, torpor and non-responsive pupils in some reptiles. Other problems, such as hypocalcaemia, are far more common though. Hyperglycaemia may occur with iatrogenic glucocorticoid use or excess delivery of [[Glucose|glucose]]. Diabetes mellitus should also be considered.

Both animal and environmental factors affect levels. Animal factors include species and nutritional status, and environmental factors include ambient temperature and season. Response to environmental cues tends to be species-specific. Glucose values are generally between 3–16 mmol/l. Glucose values in reptiles are presently considered of limited value because any changes tend to be non-specific and not sensitive.  For instance, hypoglycaemia has been associated with starvation, malnutrition, high protein diets, severe liver disease, endocrinopathies and septicaemia. Hypoglycaemia has also been reported to cause tremors, loss of righting reflex, torpor and non-responsive pupils in some reptiles. Other problems, such as hypocalcaemia, are far more common though. Hyperglycaemia may occur with iatrogenic glucocorticoid use or excess delivery of glucose. Diabetes mellitus should also be considered.

===Lactate dehydrogenase===

===Lactate dehydrogenase===

[[Lactate dehydrogenase|Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)]] has a wide distribution in reptile tissues and elevations suggest tissue damage. In some species elevations over 1000 iu/l are considered significant.  An increased value for [[Lactate dehydrogenase|LDH]]  indicates tissue damage.

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) has a wide distribution in reptile tissues and elevations suggest tissue damage. In some species elevations over 1000 iu/l are considered significant.  An increased value for LDH indicates tissue damage.

==Not commonly used==

==Not commonly used==