Equine Nervous System - Horse Anatomy

Central Nervous System

Brain

The brain is responsible for co-ordinating, integrating and controlling the rest of the nervous system. The brain is divided into several parts. Based on phylogenetic development, it can be divided into the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. Based on gross anatomy, it can be divided into the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem. The brain is enclosed within the cranial cavity of the skull.

Cranial Nerves

Cranial nerves arise from the brain and brain stem, rather than the spinal cord. Nerves arising from the spinal cord are the peripheral nerves. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves and these pairs of nerves passage through foramina in the skull, either individually or in groups. Cranial nerves are traditionally referred to by Roman numerals and these numerals begin cranially and run caudally. The most cranial nerve is the Olfactory nerve (I) which runs from the nasal cavity through to the olfactory bulb. The next most cranial is the Optic nerve (II) which runs from the eyes to the thalamus. Cranial nerves III to XII all exit from the brain stem and innervate the head, neck and organs in the thorax and abdomen. In order of most cranial to caudal, these include the Oculomotor nerve (III), the Trochlear nerve (IV), the Trigeminal nerve (V), the Abducens nerve (VI), the Facial nerve (VII), the Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), the Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), the Vagus nerve (X), the Accessory nerve (XI) and the Hypoglossal nerve (XII).

Many of the cranial nerves with nuclei within the brain stem contain sensory and motor neurone components. The sensory fibre components have their cell bodies located in ganglia outside the central nervous system and the motor fibre element have their cell bodies within the central nervous system. TheOlfactory nerve (I), Optic nerve (II) and Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) are sensory nerves. The , Oculomotor nerve (III), Trochlear nerve (IV),Abducens nerve (VI),Accessory nerve (XI) and Hypoglossal nerve (XII) are motor nerves. Finally, the Trigeminal nerve (V), Facial nerve (VII),Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), and Vagus nerve (X) are mixed sensory and motor nerves.

Olfactory Nerve (I)

The olfactory nerve is involved in the conscious perception of smell. Primary afferent cell bodies are located within the olfactory epithelium of the nasal mucosa on ethmoturbiate bones,rather than in a ganglion like the other cranial nerves. Projections from these cell bodies are the olfactory nerve fibres. The olfactory nerve is a sensory nerve and is composed of many Special Visceral Afferent fibres. The fibres are formed into bundles that are referred to as 'Olfactory filaments'. The olfactory nerve passes through the Cribiform plate and is surrounded by meningeal sheets including the sub-arachnoid space. The olfactory nerve terminates at the olfactory bulb. The horse also has nerves which arise from the nasal septum that course into the olfactory bulb, along with the vomeronasal nerve arising from the vomeronasal organ. Secondary neurons within the olfactory bulb project through the olfactory tracts to synapse with third order neurons in the medial forebrain bundle, amygdala, septal nuclei and habenular nuclei.

Optic Nerve (II)

The optic nerve represents the connection between the receptor cells of the retina and the forebrain. It is not a true nerve, but represents an extension of the brain. The optic nerve is sesory, and is composed of Special Somatic Afferent fibres.

The visual pathway' involves three consecutive neurons:

• The first order neuron is the bipolar cells of the retina, which are known as rods and cones.
• The second order neuron is the ganglion cells of the retina and axons within the optic nerve. The optic nerve passes through the optic chiasm, which is an area of the ventral brain where both optic nerves run in a medial direction and eventually decussate (cross). In the horse, approximately 85-88% of fibres decussate. The optic nerve then runs through the optic canal.
• The third order neuron has its cell body in the lateral geniculate nucleus in the diencephalon. Its axon projects to the visual cortex, which is mostly the contralateral occipital cortex, in the optic radiation. The occipital lobe is where visual processing takes place at a conscious level.

The nerve is also involved in modulation of parasympathetic tone to the iris. The first and second order neuron pathways are the same as those responsible for vision, however after synapsing with the lateral geniculate nucleus axons involved in modulation of parasympathetic tone synapse with a third order neuron in the pretectal nucleus. Most axons from the pretectal nucleus then decussate back to synapse in the parasympathetic component of the Occulomotor nerve (III) in the ipsilateral eye (because it has crossed once at the optic chiasm and then again at the pretectal nucleus).

The optic nerve can be examined clinically via a menace response and anopsia (loss of vision) can be seen, especially associated with shear injury to the nerve after head trauma.