Skull and Facial Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology

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Introduction

Deer Skull - Copyright nabrown RVC

The shape and size of the skull varies widely, not only between species but also with age, breed and sex of similar species. The skull is divided into three components- the neurocranium, the dermatocranium and the viscerocranium. The skull also includes the hyoid apparatus, mandible, ossicles of the middle ear and the cartilage of the larynx, nose and ear. The skull protects the brain and head against injury and supports the structures of the face. In some animals the skull is also used for defensive actions, for example in horned ungulates such as red deer stags.

The neurocranium develops from the neural crest and mesoderm and undergoes endochondral ossification. It lies ventral to the brain.

The dermatocranium lies dorsal to the brain and develops from the neural crest and mesoderm. It undergoes intramembranous ossification.

The viscerocranium is the pharyngeal skeleton. It is derived only from the neural crest and undergoes endochondral and intramembranous ossification.

The various facial muscles attach onto the skull in different places depending on their function. Movement of the external apendages, mastication and facial expressions all rely on the movement of the facial muscles.

Structure

• The skull is made of many smaller bones

• Most of the skull bones are paired

• Cartilage or fibrous tissue separates the bones of the skull in the young animal

• Once growth has ceased, the sutures begin to ossify

Function

• Protection of brain

• Support facial muscles by providing origin and insertion sites

• Foramen provide entry and exit places for the vasculature and nervous system

• Defense

Bones of the Skull

Occipital Bone (os occipitale)

• Forms the nuchal wall

• Forms the foramen magnum

• Basilar part (pars basilaris)
  • Caudal base of the cranium
  • Rostral to foramen magnum
  • Joined by cartilagenous suture to basisphenoid bone
  • Muscular tubercules on ventral surface where the flexors of the head and neck attach
  • Caudal cranial fossa enclose the pons and medulla oblongata

• Squamous part (pars squamosa)
  • Dorsal to lateral parts and occipital condyles
  • Nuchal crest present
    • Easily palpable
    • Landmark for collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
  • External occipital protuberances present which provide muscle attachment sites for the nuchal ligament

• Lateral parts (partes laterales)
  • Lateral borders of foramen magnum
  • Occipital condyles present which articulate with the atlas to form the atlanto-occipital joint
  • Paracondylar process present which provides muscle attachment sights for muscles of the head
  • Hypoglossal canal

Sphenoid Bone (os sphenoidale)

• Forms the base of the neurocranium

• Composed of a body and wings

• Bones separated by cartilage which ossifies with age

• Presphenoid (os praespenoidale)
  • Rostrally
  • Rostral caudal fossa
  • Hollow body with sphenoid sinuses located inside
  • Sphenoid rostrum present
  • Optic chiasma
  • Optic Canal

• Basisphenoid (os basispenoidalis)
  • Caudally
  • Median cranial fossa
  • The wings oppose the temporal bone, maxilla, orbit and the brain
  • Wings form the oval foramen and other foramen (see species differences) carotid notch, oval foramen and spinous notch (in the horse)
  • Pterygoid processes present
  • Alar canal (rostral and caudal alar foramen)

Temporal Bone (os temporale)

• Composed of squamous, petrosal and tympanic parts

• Lateral wall of the cranial cavity

• Articulates with the frontal, pareital and sphenoid bones

• Zygomatic process
  • On squamous part
  • Joins the temporal process of the zygomatic bone to form the zygomatic arch
  • Forms the articulating surface of the temperomandibular joint

• Articular tubercle present

• Mandibular fossa present

• Occipital process and retrotympanic process surrounds the external acoustic meatus

• Petrosal part encloses the inner ear
  • Internal acoustic meatus present
  • Forms mastoid process ventrally
  • Styloid process present which attaches the hyoid apparatus
  • Stylomastoid foramen present

• Tympanic part is the ventral section of the temporal bone
  • Tympanic bulla present
  • Tympanic membrane separates tympanic cavity from external acoustic meatus
  • Encloses auditory ossicle dorsally
  • Musculotubal canal where tensors of the soft palate originate

Frontal Bone (os frontale)

• Paired

• Joined by the interfrontal suture

• Between the cranium and the face

• Encloses the frontal sinuses

• The nasal and lacrimal bones border the frontal squama section
  • Forms the zygomatic process laterally
  • Forms the dorsal part of the orbit
  • Lacrimal gland present
  • Temporal line present which extends into the external sagittal crest
  • Cornual processes in horned ruminants

• The nasal section is the rostral part of the frontal bone

• Orbital part is perforated by the ethmoidal foramen
  • Medially the dorsal oblique muscle of the eyeball attaches

• Temporal part provides the muscle attachments for the temporalis muscle

Parietal Bone (os parietale)

• Paired

• Forms the dorsolateral wall of the cranium

• Occipital bone caudally

• Frontal bone rostrally

• Composed of a pareital plane, temporal plane and a nuchal plane (in the ox)

• Internally the grooves and ridges correspond with the gyri and sulci of the brain

• Interpareital bone between the occipital bone and the pareital bone
  • Fuses with age

Ethmoid Bone (os ethmoidale)

Nasal Cavities - Copyright David Bainbridge

• Forms part of the cranial and facial parts of the skull

• Located deep in the orbit

• External lamina consists of the roof plate, floor plate and paired orbital plates

• The ethmoid bone is separated from the cranial cavity by the cribiform plate
  • Numerous small foramina where the olfactory nerve (CN I) passes through

• The perpendicular plate splits the ethmoid into two halves

• The ethmoid larbyrinth prodrudes from the ethmoid tubes
  • Composed of two rows of ethmoturbinates and air filled ethmoidal meatuses
  • Secondary ethmoturbinates may also be present

• Ethmoturbinates divided into endoturbinates and ectoturbinates
  • The first endoturbinate forms the dorsal nasal conchae
  • The second endoturbinate froms the middle nasal conchae

• The endoturbinates form 3 nasal meatuses
  • Dorsal nasal meatus
  • Middle nasal meatus
  • Ventral nasal meatus

Nasal Bone (os nasale)

• Paired

• Forms the roof of the nasal cavity

• Dorsal nasal conchae attach to the ethmoidal crest on the internal surface

• Rostral suture form the apex

• Between the nasal and incisive bones is the nasoincisive notch

Lacrimal Bone (os lacrimale)

• Forms part of the lateral wall of the face and orbit

• Situated near the medial canthus

• It articulates with the frontal bone, zygomatic bone and maxilla
  • Also articulates with the nasal bone in ruminants and the horse
  • Also articulates with the palatine bone in carnivores

• Composed of an orbital and facial part separated by supra- and infraorbital margins

• The nasolacrimal duct is present by the margin of the orbital surface

• Ventral oblique muscle attaches caudal to the margin of the orbital surface

• Nasal surface forms the boundaries of the maxillary and frontal sinuses

Zygomatic Bone (os zygomaticum)

• Lateral and ventral to the lacrimal bone

• Forms the orbit and zygomatic arch

• Supraorbital margin formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the frontal process of the zygomatic bone

• Facial crest present on lateral surface

Incisive Bone (os incisivium)

• Paired

• Composed of body, nasal, palatine and alveolar parts

• Joins with the maxilla to form the interalveolar margin

• Forms the rostral part of the facial section of the skull, the roof of the hard palate and the opening to the nasal cavity

• The alveolar process form conical sockets for the incisor teeth

Palatine Bone (os palatinum)

• Paired

• Between the maxilla, sphenoid and pterygoid bones

• Composed of a horizontal plate (forms part of the hard palate), perpendicular plate (forms the dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal meatus) and the choanae

• Nasal crest present on the horizontal plate

• Palatine sinus present on horizontal plate

Vomer

• Unpaired

• Extends from the choanae of the palatine bone to the floor of the nasal cavity

• Attavhes to the median nuchal crest

• Septal sulcus formed which surrounds nasal cavity

Pterygoid Bone (os pterygoideum)

• Paired

• Bordered by the palatine and sphenoid bones

• Forms dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal cavity

• Pterygoid hamulus present

Maxilla

• Forms most of the facial part of the skull, including the lateral walls of the face, nasal cavity, oral cavity and hard palate

• Forms the ventral nasal conchae

• It articulates with all of the facial bones as it is the largest bone of the face

• The maxillary body encloses the maxillary sinuses and forms the external surface of the face
  • Facial crest present

• Infraorbital foramen palpatable

• Conchal crest on nasal surface where the ventral nasal conchae attaches

• Lacrimal canal opens into the lacrimal foramen on the nasal surface

• Pterygopalatine surfaces are the caudal part of the maxilla which terminate in the maxillary tubercle where the sphenopalatine, maxillary and caudal palatine foramen are present

• Alveolar processes present separated by interalveolar septa

• Palatine process form the hard palate with the palatine bone

• Palatine fissure formed at the articulation with the incisive bone

• Nasal surface of palatine process froms the nasal crest and encloses part of the palatine sinuses

• Oral surface has numerous palatine foramina present

Mandible (mandibula)

Mandible of the Cow in situ - Copyright RVC

• The manidble can be divided into the body and the ramus

• The body of the mandible supports the incisor teeth (rostrally) and cheek teeth (caudally)
  • The section of the body which does not support any teeth is called the interalveolar margin or diastema
  • Mandibular canal present
  • Mental foramen present
  • Facial notch on ventral surface where the parotid duct (in herbivores) and facial vessels run

Mandible of the Parrot - Copyright RVC

• The ramus extend from the caudal end of the body dorsally towards the zygomatic arch
  • The masseter muscle attaches to the lateral surface at the masseteric fossa
  • The medial pterygoid attaches to teh medial surface at the pterygoid fossa
  • The angle of the mandible terminates dorsally in the condylar process and the coronoid process which are separated by the mandibular notch
  • The temporal muscle inserts onto the coronoid head
  • The condylar process articulates with the mandibular process of the skull (see here)

Major Foramen and Canals

• Jugular Foramen
  • Located either side of basilar part of occipital bone
  • Adjacent to tympanic bulla
  • Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), vagus nerve (CN X) and accessory nerve (CN XI)
  • Internal carotid artery

Foramen Magnum (Horse) - Copyright RVC

• Foramen Magnum
  • Formed by occipital bones
  • Spinal cord's passage to the neck and body
  • Alar ligaments run through
  • Vertebral arteries run through
  • Spinal arteries run through
  • Tectoral membranes run through

• Hypoglossal Canal
  • Between paracondylar and condylar processes on lateral part of occipital bone
  • Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
  • Condylar artery and vein

• Optic Chiasma
  • Runs in transverse depression behind sphenoid rostrum on presphenoid bone
  • Path of the optic nerve (CN II)

• Optic Canal
  • Ends from optic chiasma over wings of the presphenoid bones
  • Optic nerve (CN II)

• Oval Foramen
  • Caudal wing of the basisphenoid bones
  • Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3)

• Alar Canal
  • Rostral border of the basisphenoid bone at the base of the pterygoid processes
  • Composed of the caudal alar foramen, rostral alar foramen and the small alar foramen
  • Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2)
  • Temporal artery

• Stylomastoid Foramen
  • Situated on the petrosal part of the temporal bone
  • Facial nerve (CN VII)

• Ethmoidal Foramen
  • Perforate the orbital part of the frontal bone
  • Olfactory nerve (CN I)
  • Ethmoidal artery and vein

• Orbital Fissure
  • On the presphenoid bone
  • Opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1), occulomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV) and the abducens nerve (CN VI)

• Supraorbital Foramen
  • On the frontal bone
  • Opthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1)
  • Frontal artery and vein

• Infraorbital Foramen
  • On the maxilla
  • Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2)
• Infraorbital artery and vein

Mental and Infraorbital foramen (dog) - Copyright RVC

• Mental Foramen
  • On rostral end of the mandible
  • Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3)
  • Mental artery and vein

• Palatine Canal
  • Runs through horizontal plate of palatine bone
  • Palatine artery
  • Palatine vein
  • Palatine nerves

• Internal Acoustic Meatus
  • Medial surface of the petrosal part of the temporal bone
  • Facial opening for the facial nerve (CN VII)
  • Cochlear opening, dorsal vestibule opening and the ventral vestibule opening for the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)

Species Differences

Brachycephalic skull (Pug) - Copyright RVC

Canine

• Dogs have different skull lengths depending on breed
  • Mesocephalic dogs have average conformation
  • Dolichocephalic dogs have longer skull lengths
  • Brachycephalic dogs have shorter skull lengths

• 2 halves of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement

• External sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest

• Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous foramen and carotid canal

• No foramen lacernum

• Styloid process absent

• Dorsal margin of orbit formed by the orbital ligament

Feline skull (Lion) - Copyright RVC

Feline

• The mandible appears globular in shape

• Large orbits with complete bony margins

• Large tympanic bulla which can be palpated

• 2 halves of the mandible do not fuse allowing some movement

• Weak external sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest

• Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous foramen and carotid canal

• No foramen lacernum

• Styloid process absent

• Dorsal margin of orbit formed by the orbital ligament which is ossified

• Interpareital bone does not fuse entirely in the adult

Horse Skeleton - Copyright Nottingham

Equine

• Weak external sagittal crest arises from nuchal crest

• Internal sagittal crest on the internal surface of the pareital bone

• Long skull length

• Orbit placed more laterally with a complete bony rim

• Strong zygomatic arch which continues on to form the facial crest

• Deep nasoincisive notch

• Prominent hamular process

• Large mandible
  • Vascular notch on mandible
  • High ramus

• Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen, spinous notch and carotid notch

• Foramen lacernum present

• Zygomatic process articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone

• Three rows of ethmoturbinates present

Sheep skull - Copyright RVC

Ruminant

• Skull is short and wide

• Cornual process on frontal bone

• Nuchal crest reduced to nuchal line

• Prominent temporal line

• Elevated orbital ring which is complete

• No facial crest

• Prominent tympanic bullae

• Nasoincisive notch present

• Wings of the basisphenoid bones form the oval foramen

• No foramen lacernum

• Petrosal and tympanic parts of the temporal bone fused to the squamous part

• Zygomatic process articulates with the frontal process of the zygomatic bone

Pig skull showing tusks - Copyright RVC

Porcine

• Thick nucal crest

• Internal sagittal crest on the internal surface of the pareital bone

• Prominent temporal line

• Orbit is incomplete and small

• Strong and deep zygomatic arch

• Large tympanic bullae

• High caudal part of the skull

• Styloid process absent

Bird skull - Copyright RVC

Avian

• Pneumatised skull bones
  • Spaces in skull bones which connect to airways in the head rather than the air sacs

• Large orbits

• Skull plates are separated by spongy bone

• A single occipital condyle articulates with the atlas allowing more rotation of the head

• In parrots, the nasal bone and frontal bone are joined by a flexible cartliage structure allowing greater jaw opening which is called the craniofacial hinge. This allows kinesis to occur.

• Thin jugal arch (equivalent to zygomatic arch)

• Middle ear contains only the columella (equivalent to the stapes)

Links

Deglutition

Mastication

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