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| | * A decrease in solute concentrations disrupt normal cell function | | * A decrease in solute concentrations disrupt normal cell function |
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| − | ==The Ability of the Kidney To Alter the Water Content of the Body==
| + | <big>'''Total Water Balance''' |
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| − | * Take a dog which weighs 20kg and is drinking normally. It will produce 0.5l of water per 24 hours.
| + | [[Renal Handling of Water - Physiology|'''Renal Handling of Water''']] |
| − | * If the dog drinks excessively it can produce 8ml urine/min to compensate meaning a total of 11 litres per 24 hours
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| − | * If a dog is denied water the production drops to a tiny 0.15 litres per 24 hours
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| − | The reabsorption of water can occur paracellulary - the main method in the proximal tubule or transcellulary - the main method in the distal tubule and collecting duct.
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| − | * Contrary to popular belief diffusion of water accross lipid bilayers (transcellulary) is too slow for most physiological processes
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| − | * Aquaporins solve this problem
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| − | * '''The reabsorption in the proximal tubule and loop of henle occurs as water follows the reabsorbed sodium via osmosis.'''
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| − | * The protein osmotic pressure coupled with the hydrostatic pressure of the [[Peritubular Capillaries - Anatomy & Physiology#Pressure in the Peritubular Capillaries|'''peritubular capillaries]]''' effects the volume of water excreted or conserved also.
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| − | | |
| − | ==What are Aquaporins==
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| − | * Family of membrane channel proteins
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| − | * Over a dozen homologous water transporting proteins make up this family in mammals
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| − | * Allow rapid transport of substances accross membranes
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| − | * Found in all life forms
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| − | * Commonly abbreviated to '''AQP'''
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| − | * Ones found in the kidneys are:
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| − | ** <Font Color="#669933">'''AQP1'''</Font> - Tubules
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| − | ** <Font Color="#669933">'''AQP2'''</Font> - [[Collecting Duct - Anatomy & Physiology| Collecting duct]]
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| − | ** <Font Color="#CC6633">'''AQP3'''</Font> - [[Collecting Duct - Anatomy & Physiology| Collecting duct]]
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| − | ** <Font Color="#669933">'''AQP4'''</Font> - [[Collecting Duct - Anatomy & Physiology| Collecting duct]]
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| − | ** <Font Color="#660000">'''AQP6'''</Font> - [[Collecting Duct - Anatomy & Physiology| Collecting duct (intercalated cells)]]
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| − | ** <Font Color="#CC6633">'''AQP7'''</Font> - [[Proximal Tubule - Anatomy & Physiology| Proximal tubule]]
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| − | ** <Font Color="#9900ff">'''AQP11'''</Font> - Kidney
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| − | * They are colour coded according to their function
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| − | ** <Font Color="#669933">'''Water channels'''</Font>
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| − | ** <Font Color="#CC6633">'''Glycerol channels'''</Font>
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| − | ** <Font Color="#660000">'''Intracellular chloride channels'''</Font>
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| − | ** <Font Color="#9900ff">'''Function Unknown'''</Font>
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| − | * They allow the reabsorption of water, glycerol and chlorine from the filtrate
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| − | * Without them producing concentrated urine would be impossible
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| − | | |
| − | ==[[Endocrine System - Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology #Posterior Pituitary Gland| ADH]] and the [[Collecting Duct - Anatomy & Physiology|Collecting Duct]]==
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| − | The membrane of the [[Collecting Duct - Anatomy & Physiology|Collecting Duct]] is practically impermeable to water. Therefore in order for water reabsorbtion from this part of the nephron to occur it is vital that aquaporins are inserted. This is the role of [[Endocrine System - Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology #Posterior Pituitary Gland| ADH]]. These channels are always present on the basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells but their presence and concentration on the apical membrane is reliant on the concentration of ADH in the blood. ADH works by binding to '''V<sub>2</sub>''' receptors on the basolateral membranes of the cells and activates adenyl cyclase creating '''cyclicAMP''' (cAMP) this in turn activates '''protein kinase A''' which causes '''protein phosphorylation'''. This causes vesicles with ready made glycoprotein '''AQP2''' aquaporins in their membranes to move to the apical cell membrane and insert the aquaporins via exocytosis. This rapidly increases the water permeability and allowing reabsorption
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| − | | |
| − | ==Species Variation of the Ability to Conserve Water==
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| − | | |
| − | Mammals and birds can produce urine both more and less concentrated than plasma in order to conserve or excrete water. The excretion is done without interefering with the levels of solute excretion. The ability to concentrate urine depends greatly on a species access to water. Animals with access to lots of water have less of a need and therefore have not evolved great mechanisms to concentrate urine for example the beaver. However animals who have limited access to water and say live in more arrid environments such as the kangaroo rat which lives in a desert habitat have evolved very good mechanisms to reabsorb lots of water and produce a very concentrated urine.
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| − | | |
| − | ===Nephron Species Differances===
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| − | The variation in nephron structure is pivotal to the to the species differances with regard to the ability to concentrate urine. Broadly there are two structures.
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| − | =====Juxtamedullary Nephrons=====
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| − | These nephrons have glomeruli in the cortex and loops of henle which descend into the medulla. These are the commonly described nephrons. Significant urine concentration is achieved thanks to the hyperosmolar medulla achieved via the counter current multiplier drawing water out of the collecting ducts.
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| − | | |
| − | =====Cortical Nephrons=====
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| − | These nephrons have glomeruli in the outer cortex and their loops of henle barely penetrate the medulla. They have very limited concentrating ability.
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| − | The length of the loop of henle is the determining factor with regard to how concentrated urine an animal can produce. In species which produce very concentrated urine almost if not all of their nephrons are juxtamedullary in type and they tend to have very long loops of henle. However animals such as beavers where dehydration is not really an issue have very short loops of henle and excrete dilute urine. One surprise is however that the kangaroo rat which can concentrate urine to the equivalent of a 20% saline solution actually has shorter nephrons than some larger species with less ability to concentrate urine. This has been attributed to it having a much higher metabolic rate and thus more active transport meaning greater gradients can occur on any given length of its loop of henle.
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| − | The following table shows a comparison between the maximum concentrating abilities of the kidneys of various mammals. Data from Physiology of Domestic Animals - Sjaastad, Hove and Sand. For full text referance see the [[Reference Material Urinary Anatomy & Physiology| Reference Material]] section.
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| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | <TABLE CELLPADDING="2" CELLSPACING="2" WIDTH="40%">
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>'''Species'''</center></TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>'''Max Urine Osmolarity (mosmol/l)'''</center></TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>'''Urine/Plasma Concentration Ratio'''</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD>Beaver</TD>
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| − | <TD><center>520</center></TD>
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| − | <TD><center>2</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6">Calf</TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>500</center></TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>2</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD>Pig</TD>
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| − | <TD><center>1100</center></TD>
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| − | <TD><center>4</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6">Humans</TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>1200</center></TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>4</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD>Cow</TD>
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| − | <TD><center>1400</center></TD>
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| − | <TD><center>5</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6">Sheep</TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>3500</center></TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>11</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD>Horse</TD>
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| − | <TD><center>2000</center></TD>
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| − | <TD><center>7</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6">Dog</TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>2500</center></TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>8</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD>Cat</TD>
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| − | <TD><center>3000</center></TD>
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| − | <TD><center>10</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | <TR>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6">Kangaroo Rat</TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>5500</center></TD>
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| − | <TD BGCOLOR="#C1f0f6"><center>18</center></TD>
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| − | </TR>
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| − | </TABLE>
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