Changes

==Roles in the Body==

==Roles in the Body==

====Skin and Hair Coat====

#'''Skin and Hair Coat:'''Epidermal keratinocytes secrete the LA-enriched phospholipid, ceramide, in both dogs and cats, which enhances cell cohesion and creates an effective water barrier.<ref>Elias PM, ''et al.'' (1980)''' The permeability barrier in essential fatty acid deficiency: Evidence for a direct role of linoleic acid in barrier function.''''' J Invest Dermatol ''1980;74:230-233. </ref> Increased intake of ALA may blunt the conversion of LA to AA,<ref name="Rees" /><ref name="Bauer" /> allowing for more LA to be incorporated into ceramide. Ratios of LA:ALA of 2.6:1 to 26:1 have been proposed for optimal skin and coat health.<ref name="NRC">National Research Council (NRC). (2006) '''Fat and Fatty Acids In Nutrient Requirements for Dogs and Cats. '''2006 ''Washington, DC: National Academies Press'' p.81-110.</ref>

Epidermal keratinocytes secrete the LA-enriched phospholipid, ceramide, in both dogs and cats, which enhances cell cohesion and creates an effective water barrier.<ref>Elias PM, ''et al.'' (1980)''' The permeability barrier in essential fatty acid deficiency: Evidence for a direct role of linoleic acid in barrier function.''''' J Invest Dermatol ''1980;74:230-233. </ref> Increased intake of ALA may blunt the conversion of LA to AA,<ref name="Rees" /><ref name="Bauer" /> allowing for more LA to be incorporated into ceramide. Ratios of LA:ALA of 2.6:1 to 26:1 have been proposed for optimal skin and coat health.<ref name="NRC">National Research Council (NRC). (2006) '''Fat and Fatty Acids In Nutrient Requirements for Dogs and Cats. '''2006 ''Washington, DC: National Academies Press'' p.81-110.</ref>

#'''Inflammation:'''<font color="red">Eicosapentaenoic acid is incorporated into cellular membrane and competes with AA for cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes. Inflammatory [[Nutrition Glossary#Eicosanoids|eicosanoids]] produced from EPA (series-3 prostaglandins prostaglandins, prostacyclins and thromboxanes and series-5 leukotrienes) are less pro-inflammatory than those produced from AA metabolism (SCHEMATIC)</font> .<ref name="NRC" /> Though not considered an essential fatty acid, increased intake of EPA in conjunction with a decrease in AA intake has been suggested as an aid in the management of inflammatory conditions such as [[Contact Dermatitis|allergic dermatitis]],<ref>Mueller RS, ''et al.'' (2005) '''Plasma and skin concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids before and after supplementation with n-3 fatty acids in dogs with atopic dermatitis.''''' Am J Vet Res'' 2005;66:868-73.</ref> nephritis,<ref>Brown SA, ''et al.'' (2000)''' Effects of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in early renal insufficiency in dogs. '''''J Lab Clin Med ''2000;135:275-286.</ref> and [[osteoarthritis]]<ref>Roush JK, ''et al. '' (2010)''' Multicenter veterinary practice assessment of the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on osteoarthritis in dogs. '''''JAVMA ''2010;236:59-66. </ref> in dogs. Supplementation of EPA has also been shown to be beneficial in older healthy dogs<ref>Hall JA, ''et al.'' (1999)''' Effect of dietary n-6 to n-3 ratio on complete blood and total white cell counts, and T cell populations in aged dogs. '''''AJVR ''1999;60:319-327.</ref><ref>Hall JA, ''et al.'' (1999)''' Influence of dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids from menhaden fish oil on plasma concentrations of α-tocopherol in geriatric beagles.''''' AJVR ''1999;63:104-110.</ref> as well as those with heart disease.<ref>Freeman LM, ''et al. '' (1998) '''Nutritional alterations and the effect of fish oil supplementation in dogs with heart failure.''''' JVIM ''1998;12:440-448.</ref> Supplementation with higher levels of EPA in people undergoing cancer treatment may also result in a decrease in circulating IL-6 levels and improvement in lean body mass and appetite<ref>Barber MD, ''et al.'' (2001)''' Effect of a fish oil-enriched nutritional supplement on metabolic mediators in patients with pancreatic cancer cachexia.''''' Nutr Cancer'' 2001;40:118-24.</ref><ref>Fearon KC, ''et al.'' (2003)''' Effect of a protein and energy dense N-3 fatty acid enriched oral supplement on loss of weight and lean tissue in cancer cachexia: a randomised double blind trial.''''' Gut'' 2003;52:1479-86.</ref>. This specific effect of EPA on lean body mass and appetite has not been studied in dogs and cats, but EPA supplementation may be beneficial to help decrease inflammation secondary to radiation therapy in dogs with nasal tumours.<ref>Hansen RA, ''et al.'' (2011)''' Menhaden oil administration to dogs treated with radiation for nasal tumors demonstrates lower levels of tissue eicosanoids. '''''Nutr Res'' 2011;31:929-36.</ref> Additionally, dogs with [[lymphoma]] (stage 3a) had an improvement in short-term survival when fed a diet supplemented with EPA and DHA among other nutrient modifications<ref>Ogilvie GK, ''et al''. (2000)''' Effect of fish oil, arginine, and doxorubicin chemotherapy on remission and survival time for dogs with lymphoma: a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled study. '''''Cancer ''2000;88:1916-28.</ref>. These effects have not been demonstrated in cats or in dogs with other types of cancers.

 

#'''Growth:'''

====Inflammation====

<font color="red">Eicosapentaenoic acid is incorporated into cellular membrane and competes with AA for cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes. Inflammatory [[Nutrition Glossary#Eicosanoids|eicosanoids]] produced from EPA (series-3 prostaglandins prostaglandins, prostacyclins and thromboxanes and series-5 leukotrienes) are less pro-inflammatory than those produced from AA metabolism (SCHEMATIC)</font> .<ref name="NRC" /> Though not considered an essential fatty acid, increased intake of EPA in conjunction with a decrease in AA intake has been suggested as an aid in the management of inflammatory conditions such as [[Contact Dermatitis|allergic dermatitis]],<ref>Mueller RS, ''et al.'' (2005) '''Plasma and skin concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids before and after supplementation with n-3 fatty acids in dogs with atopic dermatitis.''''' Am J Vet Res'' 2005;66:868-73.</ref> nephritis,<ref>Brown SA, ''et al.'' (2000)''' Effects of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in early renal insufficiency in dogs. '''''J Lab Clin Med ''2000;135:275-286.</ref> and [[osteoarthritis]]<ref>Roush JK, ''et al. '' (2010)''' Multicenter veterinary practice assessment of the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on osteoarthritis in dogs. '''''JAVMA ''2010;236:59-66. </ref> in dogs. Supplementation of EPA has also been shown to be beneficial in older healthy dogs<ref>Hall JA, ''et al.'' (1999)''' Effect of dietary n-6 to n-3 ratio on complete blood and total white cell counts, and T cell populations in aged dogs. '''''AJVR ''1999;60:319-327.</ref><ref>Hall JA, ''et al.'' (1999)''' Influence of dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids from menhaden fish oil on plasma concentrations of α-tocopherol in geriatric beagles.''''' AJVR ''1999;63:104-110.</ref> as well as those with heart disease.<ref>Freeman LM, ''et al. '' (1998) '''Nutritional alterations and the effect of fish oil supplementation in dogs with heart failure.''''' JVIM ''1998;12:440-448.</ref> Supplementation with higher levels of EPA in people undergoing cancer treatment may also result in a decrease in circulating IL-6 levels and improvement in lean body mass and appetite<ref>Barber MD, ''et al.'' (2001)''' Effect of a fish oil-enriched nutritional supplement on metabolic mediators in patients with pancreatic cancer cachexia.''''' Nutr Cancer'' 2001;40:118-24.</ref><ref>Fearon KC, ''et al.'' (2003)''' Effect of a protein and energy dense N-3 fatty acid enriched oral supplement on loss of weight and lean tissue in cancer cachexia: a randomised double blind trial.''''' Gut'' 2003;52:1479-86.</ref>. This specific effect of EPA on lean body mass and appetite has not been studied in dogs and cats, but EPA supplementation may be beneficial to help decrease inflammation secondary to radiation therapy in dogs with nasal tumours.<ref>Hansen RA, ''et al.'' (2011)''' Menhaden oil administration to dogs treated with radiation for nasal tumors demonstrates lower levels of tissue eicosanoids. '''''Nutr Res'' 2011;31:929-36.</ref> Additionally, dogs with [[lymphoma]] (stage 3a) had an improvement in short-term survival when fed a diet supplemented with EPA and DHA among other nutrient modifications<ref>Ogilvie GK, ''et al''. (2000)''' Effect of fish oil, arginine, and doxorubicin chemotherapy on remission and survival time for dogs with lymphoma: a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled study. '''''Cancer ''2000;88:1916-28.</ref>. These effects have not been demonstrated in cats or in dogs with other types of cancers.

 

====Growth====

Docosapentaenoic acid is taken up by brain and retinal tissues where it is converted to DHA. Docosahexaenoic acid is incorporated into retinal rods and brain tissue,<ref name="Zicker" /><ref name="Heinemann" /> and is conditionally essential for normal brain and retinal development.

Docosapentaenoic acid is taken up by brain and retinal tissues where it is converted to DHA. Docosahexaenoic acid is incorporated into retinal rods and brain tissue,<ref name="Zicker" /><ref name="Heinemann" /> and is conditionally essential for normal brain and retinal development.

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