Difference between revisions of "Rickettsiales"

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#REDIRECT[[:Category: Rickettsiales]]
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<br>
 +
 
 +
===Overview===
 +
 
 +
*Cause systemic diseases in animals
 +
*Usually use arthropod vectors
 +
*Host and cell type specificity
 +
*Q fever and Rocky Mountain spotted fever are zoonoses
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Characteristics===
 +
 
 +
*Non-motile, pleomorphic Gram-negative organisms
 +
*Obligate intracellular pathogens
 +
*Require live cells for culture such as tissue culture cells or embryonated eggs
 +
*Require Romanowsky stains
 +
 
 +
*Include two families, ''Rickettsiaceae'' and ''Anaplasmataceae''
 +
*''Rickettsiaceae'' have cell walls that contain peptidoglycan; they target endothelial cells and leukocytes
 +
*''Anaplasmataceae'' lack cell walls; they target erythrocytes
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Epidemiology===
 +
 
 +
*Rickettsiae replicate in gut epithelial cells of arthropod vectors and spread to other organs such as salivary glands and ovaries
 +
*Transmission occurs during feeding on the animal host
 +
*Transovarial or trans-stadial transmission occurs in the arthropod vectors
 +
*Most ricketsiae have limited survival in the environment, apart from ''Coxiella burnetii'', which undergoes aerosol transmission
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Pathogenesis and pathogenicity===
 +
 
 +
*Many rickettsiae target endothelial cells of small blood vessels; they produce phospholipase which damages phagosome membranes, escaping into the cytoplasm
 +
*''Ehrlichia'' target leukocytes or platelets, and inhibit phagosome/lysosome fusion
 +
*''Anaplasmataceae'' localise within vacuoles or on the surface of red blood cells; they may alter red cell antigens causing immune-mediated damage.  Anaemia may result from haemolysis or removal of red blood cells
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Identification===
 +
 
 +
*Giemsa-stained blood or tissue smears identify blue/purple organisms
 +
*Fluorescent antibody technique for specific identification
 +
*Isolation in embryonated eggs or tissue culture lines
 +
*Nucleic acid probes and PCR
 +
*Inoculation of susceptible animals
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Rocky Mountain spotted fever===
 +
 
 +
*Caused by ''Rickettsia rickettsii''
 +
*Affects humans and dogs
 +
*Various tick vectors, which acquire the organism from small mammals
 +
*Transovarial and trans-stadial transmission within the tick population
 +
*Organisms replicate in endothelial cells of infected dogs, cause vasculitis, increased vascular permeability and haemorrhage
 +
 
 +
*Clinical signs
 +
**Incubation period 2-10 days; course less than 2 weeks
 +
*Fever, depression, conjunctivitis, retinal haemorrhage, muscle and joint pain, coughing, dyspnoea, oedema of extremities
 +
*Neurological signs in dogs include stupor, ataxia, neck rigidity, seizures and coma
 +
*Death from cardiovascular, neurological or renal damage in severely-affected animals
 +
*Gross pathology includes haemorrhage, splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy
 +
 
 +
*Diagnosis
 +
**Rising antibody titre during an indirect fluorescent antibody test or ELISA
 +
**Thrombocytopenia and leukopenia during early phase
 +
 
 +
*Treatment and control
 +
**Tetracycline therapy for two weeks
 +
**Tick removal from dogs
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Canine monocytic ehrlichiosis===
 +
 
 +
*Generalised disease of dogs in tropical and subtropical regions
 +
*Caused by ''Ehrlichia canis''
 +
*The brown tick, ''Rhipicephalus sanguineus'', is the main vector
 +
*Dogs may carry the organism for 2 years after resolution of clinical signs
 +
 
 +
*Clinical signs
 +
**Incubation period of 3 weeks
 +
**Acute, subclinical or chronic phases
 +
**Acute phase: fever, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia and anaemia
 +
**Subclinical phase: low blood cell numbers but minimal clinical signs; can progress to a severe disease, tropical canine pancytopenia
 +
**Chronic phase: bone marrow depression, haemorrhages, neurological disease, peripheral oedema, emaciation and hypotensive shock
 +
 
 +
*Diagnosis
 +
**''E. canis'' morulae present in mononuclear cells in Giemsa-stained blood smears
 +
**Rising antibody titre detected by indirect immunofluorescence
 +
**Culture in canine macrophages
 +
 
 +
*Treatment and control
 +
**Doxycycline for 10 days
 +
**Fluid therapy or blood transfusion
 +
**Prophylactic tetracyclines
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Canine cyclic thrombocytopenia===
 +
 
 +
*Caused by ''Ehrlichia platys''
 +
*Affects platelets
 +
*Recurrent thrombocytopenia, but dogs usually asymptomatic
 +
*Seroconversion detected by indirect immunofluorescence
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Potomac horse fever===
 +
 
 +
*Caused by ''Ehrlichia risticii''
 +
*Occurs during the summer
 +
*Fluke vector
 +
*Infects epithelial cells of colon and monocytes, macrophages and mast cells
 +
 
 +
*Clinical signs
 +
**Fever, anorexia, depression, diarrhoea, colic, leukopenia, laminitis
 +
*30% mortality
 +
*Can cause abortion
 +
*Hyperaemia of large intestine at post mortem
 +
 
 +
*Diagnosis
 +
**Seroconversion detected by indirect immunofluorescence or ELISA
 +
 
 +
*Treatment and control
 +
**Oxytetracycline for 1 week
 +
**Inactivated vaccines
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Equine granulocytic ehrlichiosis===
 +
 
 +
*Caused by ''E. equi''
 +
*Clinical signs: fever, depression, ataxia, limb oedema, icterus and petechial haemorrhages
 +
*Low mortality
 +
*Diagnosis: presence of morulae in neutrophils during early disease; seroconversion; leukopenia
 +
*Treatment: tetracyclines
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Bovine petechial fever===
 +
 
 +
*Caused by ''E. ondiri''
 +
*Disease of cattle in Kenya and other countries of East Africa
 +
*Tick vector
 +
*Clinical signs: intermittent fever, depressed milk yield, petechiation of mucous membranes and conjunctiva
 +
*Death from pulmonary oedema
 +
*Diagnosis: presence of organisms in Giemsa-stained blood smears
 +
*Treatment: tetracyclines
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Tick-borne fever===
 +
 
 +
*Caused by ''E. phagocytophila''
 +
*Affects ruminants in Europe
 +
*The tick ''Ixodes ricinis'' is the main vector
 +
*Animals remain carriers for up to 2 years, but are immune to reinfection
 +
 
 +
*Clinical signs
 +
**Incubation period of 2 weeks; recovery in 2 weeks
 +
**Fever, anorexia, reduced growth rates in young animals
 +
**Reduced milk production, abortion, still birth
 +
**Leukopenia and thrombocytopenia
 +
**Causes immunosuppression in young lambs causing susceptibility to tick pyaemia and louping ill
 +
 
 +
*Diagnosis
 +
**Intracytoplasmic morulae in neutrophils of Giemsa-stained blood smears during acute phase
 +
**Seroconversion detected by immunofluorescence
 +
 
 +
*Treatment and control
 +
**Oxtetracycline
 +
**Tick control
 +
**Prophylactic tetracyclines for lambs during first few weeks of life
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Heartwater===
 +
 
 +
*Severe disease of ruminants in sub-Saharan Africa caused by ''Cowdria ruminantium''
 +
*Vectors include ''Amblyomma'' ticks
 +
*Carrier status can occur for up to 8 months in adult cattle and wildebeest
 +
*Clinical disease in calves and lambs
 +
 
 +
*Clinical signs
 +
**Incubation period 4 weeks
 +
**Acute fever
 +
**Neurological signs including chewing, twitching of eyelids, circling, high-stepping gait, convulsions and recumbency; can be fatal
 +
**Subacute cases suffer from hydropericardium, hydrothorax and pulmonary oedema and congestion; splenomegaly and haemorrhages may occur
 +
 
 +
*Diagnosis
 +
**Clinical and post mortem findings in endemic areas suggestive
 +
**Orgnisms present in nuclei of endothelial cells in Giemsa-stained brain tissue
 +
**PCR, indirect immunofluorescence, ELISA and western blot
 +
 
 +
*Treatment and control
 +
**Tetracyclines during early disease
 +
**Immunisation using infected blood
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Bovine anaplasmosis===
 +
 
 +
*Disease of cattle in tropical and sub-tropical regions caused by ''Anaplasma marginale''
 +
*Carrier status in endemic regions with clinical disease occuring in times of stress
 +
*High mortality rate in naive adult cattle
 +
*Morulae localise inside red blood cells close to the cell membrane
 +
*Transmitted via the ''Boophilus'' tick as well as flies and contaminated instruments
 +
 
 +
*Clinical signs
 +
**Inculbation period 2-12 weeks
 +
**Anorexia, fever, depression, reduced milk yield, weight loss
 +
**Anaemia and icterus
 +
**Sudden death from hypoxia can occur
 +
 
 +
*Diagnosis
 +
**Clinical signs and haematology suggestive
 +
**Organisms present in erythrocytes of Giemsa-stained blood smears
 +
**Immunofluorescence of blood smears, PCR, serology
 +
 
 +
*Treatment and control
 +
**Long-acting oxytetracycline or imidocarb early in the disease
 +
**Supportive therapy
 +
**Vaccination of animals being introduced into an endemic region
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Feline infectious anaemia===
 +
 
 +
*Caused by ''Haemobartonella felis''
 +
*Organism found on surface of erythrocytes
 +
*Common in roaming tom-cats of 1-3 years old
 +
*Possibly transmitted via bite wounds or arthropods
 +
*Recoverd cats become carriers
 +
 
 +
*Clinical signs
 +
**Peracute disease is associated with severe anaemia and immunosuppression, and can be rapidly fatal
 +
**Fever, anaemia, depression, weakness and jaundice occur in the acute form
 +
**Anaemia, lethargy and weight loss occur in the chronic form
 +
**Recovery can occur with a regenerative bone marrow response
 +
**Severe feline infectious anaemia may occur in the presence of feline leukaemia virus
 +
 
 +
*Diagnosis
 +
**Organism intermittently seen on the surface of red blood cells in Giemsa-stained blood smears
 +
**Immunofluorescence of blood smears
 +
**Reduced packed cell volume; regenerative anaemia
 +
 
 +
*Treatment
 +
**Doxycycline for 3 weeks early in the course of the disease
 +
**Blood transfusion
 +
**Flea control
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Canine haemobartonellosis===
 +
 
 +
*Dogs infected with ''Haemobartonella canis'' usually asymptomatic
 +
*Acute haemolytic anaemia may occur in dogs after splenectomy, immunosuppressive drug therapy or immunosuppressive infections
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Q fever===
 +
 
 +
*Caused by ''Coxiella burnetti''
 +
*Influenza-like disease of humans in contact with farm animals
 +
*Transmitted to humans by inhalation from parturient sheep, goats and cattle
 +
*Organisms replicate in female genital tract and mammary glands of ruminants
 +
*Shedding occurs in uterine discharges, foetal fluid and milk
 +
*Infections in animals usually subclinical
 +
*Sporadic abortions occur in sheep, goats, cattle, cats
 +
*Infertility may result in ruminants, as well as placentitis or endometritis
 +
*Hepatitis, myocarditis and interstitial pneumonia may occur in affected foetuses
 +
*Diagnosis: MZN-stained smears of placental tissue and uterine discharges; immunofluorescence; PCR; culture; serology
 +
*Control: disposal of infected placenta and separation of pregnant ruminants; inactivated vaccines

Revision as of 21:32, 30 December 2008



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BACTERIA



Overview

  • Cause systemic diseases in animals
  • Usually use arthropod vectors
  • Host and cell type specificity
  • Q fever and Rocky Mountain spotted fever are zoonoses


Characteristics

  • Non-motile, pleomorphic Gram-negative organisms
  • Obligate intracellular pathogens
  • Require live cells for culture such as tissue culture cells or embryonated eggs
  • Require Romanowsky stains
  • Include two families, Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae
  • Rickettsiaceae have cell walls that contain peptidoglycan; they target endothelial cells and leukocytes
  • Anaplasmataceae lack cell walls; they target erythrocytes


Epidemiology

  • Rickettsiae replicate in gut epithelial cells of arthropod vectors and spread to other organs such as salivary glands and ovaries
  • Transmission occurs during feeding on the animal host
  • Transovarial or trans-stadial transmission occurs in the arthropod vectors
  • Most ricketsiae have limited survival in the environment, apart from Coxiella burnetii, which undergoes aerosol transmission


Pathogenesis and pathogenicity

  • Many rickettsiae target endothelial cells of small blood vessels; they produce phospholipase which damages phagosome membranes, escaping into the cytoplasm
  • Ehrlichia target leukocytes or platelets, and inhibit phagosome/lysosome fusion
  • Anaplasmataceae localise within vacuoles or on the surface of red blood cells; they may alter red cell antigens causing immune-mediated damage. Anaemia may result from haemolysis or removal of red blood cells


Identification

  • Giemsa-stained blood or tissue smears identify blue/purple organisms
  • Fluorescent antibody technique for specific identification
  • Isolation in embryonated eggs or tissue culture lines
  • Nucleic acid probes and PCR
  • Inoculation of susceptible animals


Rocky Mountain spotted fever

  • Caused by Rickettsia rickettsii
  • Affects humans and dogs
  • Various tick vectors, which acquire the organism from small mammals
  • Transovarial and trans-stadial transmission within the tick population
  • Organisms replicate in endothelial cells of infected dogs, cause vasculitis, increased vascular permeability and haemorrhage
  • Clinical signs
    • Incubation period 2-10 days; course less than 2 weeks
  • Fever, depression, conjunctivitis, retinal haemorrhage, muscle and joint pain, coughing, dyspnoea, oedema of extremities
  • Neurological signs in dogs include stupor, ataxia, neck rigidity, seizures and coma
  • Death from cardiovascular, neurological or renal damage in severely-affected animals
  • Gross pathology includes haemorrhage, splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy
  • Diagnosis
    • Rising antibody titre during an indirect fluorescent antibody test or ELISA
    • Thrombocytopenia and leukopenia during early phase
  • Treatment and control
    • Tetracycline therapy for two weeks
    • Tick removal from dogs


Canine monocytic ehrlichiosis

  • Generalised disease of dogs in tropical and subtropical regions
  • Caused by Ehrlichia canis
  • The brown tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, is the main vector
  • Dogs may carry the organism for 2 years after resolution of clinical signs
  • Clinical signs
    • Incubation period of 3 weeks
    • Acute, subclinical or chronic phases
    • Acute phase: fever, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia and anaemia
    • Subclinical phase: low blood cell numbers but minimal clinical signs; can progress to a severe disease, tropical canine pancytopenia
    • Chronic phase: bone marrow depression, haemorrhages, neurological disease, peripheral oedema, emaciation and hypotensive shock
  • Diagnosis
    • E. canis morulae present in mononuclear cells in Giemsa-stained blood smears
    • Rising antibody titre detected by indirect immunofluorescence
    • Culture in canine macrophages
  • Treatment and control
    • Doxycycline for 10 days
    • Fluid therapy or blood transfusion
    • Prophylactic tetracyclines


Canine cyclic thrombocytopenia

  • Caused by Ehrlichia platys
  • Affects platelets
  • Recurrent thrombocytopenia, but dogs usually asymptomatic
  • Seroconversion detected by indirect immunofluorescence


Potomac horse fever

  • Caused by Ehrlichia risticii
  • Occurs during the summer
  • Fluke vector
  • Infects epithelial cells of colon and monocytes, macrophages and mast cells
  • Clinical signs
    • Fever, anorexia, depression, diarrhoea, colic, leukopenia, laminitis
  • 30% mortality
  • Can cause abortion
  • Hyperaemia of large intestine at post mortem
  • Diagnosis
    • Seroconversion detected by indirect immunofluorescence or ELISA
  • Treatment and control
    • Oxytetracycline for 1 week
    • Inactivated vaccines


Equine granulocytic ehrlichiosis

  • Caused by E. equi
  • Clinical signs: fever, depression, ataxia, limb oedema, icterus and petechial haemorrhages
  • Low mortality
  • Diagnosis: presence of morulae in neutrophils during early disease; seroconversion; leukopenia
  • Treatment: tetracyclines


Bovine petechial fever

  • Caused by E. ondiri
  • Disease of cattle in Kenya and other countries of East Africa
  • Tick vector
  • Clinical signs: intermittent fever, depressed milk yield, petechiation of mucous membranes and conjunctiva
  • Death from pulmonary oedema
  • Diagnosis: presence of organisms in Giemsa-stained blood smears
  • Treatment: tetracyclines


Tick-borne fever

  • Caused by E. phagocytophila
  • Affects ruminants in Europe
  • The tick Ixodes ricinis is the main vector
  • Animals remain carriers for up to 2 years, but are immune to reinfection
  • Clinical signs
    • Incubation period of 2 weeks; recovery in 2 weeks
    • Fever, anorexia, reduced growth rates in young animals
    • Reduced milk production, abortion, still birth
    • Leukopenia and thrombocytopenia
    • Causes immunosuppression in young lambs causing susceptibility to tick pyaemia and louping ill
  • Diagnosis
    • Intracytoplasmic morulae in neutrophils of Giemsa-stained blood smears during acute phase
    • Seroconversion detected by immunofluorescence
  • Treatment and control
    • Oxtetracycline
    • Tick control
    • Prophylactic tetracyclines for lambs during first few weeks of life


Heartwater

  • Severe disease of ruminants in sub-Saharan Africa caused by Cowdria ruminantium
  • Vectors include Amblyomma ticks
  • Carrier status can occur for up to 8 months in adult cattle and wildebeest
  • Clinical disease in calves and lambs
  • Clinical signs
    • Incubation period 4 weeks
    • Acute fever
    • Neurological signs including chewing, twitching of eyelids, circling, high-stepping gait, convulsions and recumbency; can be fatal
    • Subacute cases suffer from hydropericardium, hydrothorax and pulmonary oedema and congestion; splenomegaly and haemorrhages may occur
  • Diagnosis
    • Clinical and post mortem findings in endemic areas suggestive
    • Orgnisms present in nuclei of endothelial cells in Giemsa-stained brain tissue
    • PCR, indirect immunofluorescence, ELISA and western blot
  • Treatment and control
    • Tetracyclines during early disease
    • Immunisation using infected blood


Bovine anaplasmosis

  • Disease of cattle in tropical and sub-tropical regions caused by Anaplasma marginale
  • Carrier status in endemic regions with clinical disease occuring in times of stress
  • High mortality rate in naive adult cattle
  • Morulae localise inside red blood cells close to the cell membrane
  • Transmitted via the Boophilus tick as well as flies and contaminated instruments
  • Clinical signs
    • Inculbation period 2-12 weeks
    • Anorexia, fever, depression, reduced milk yield, weight loss
    • Anaemia and icterus
    • Sudden death from hypoxia can occur
  • Diagnosis
    • Clinical signs and haematology suggestive
    • Organisms present in erythrocytes of Giemsa-stained blood smears
    • Immunofluorescence of blood smears, PCR, serology
  • Treatment and control
    • Long-acting oxytetracycline or imidocarb early in the disease
    • Supportive therapy
    • Vaccination of animals being introduced into an endemic region


Feline infectious anaemia

  • Caused by Haemobartonella felis
  • Organism found on surface of erythrocytes
  • Common in roaming tom-cats of 1-3 years old
  • Possibly transmitted via bite wounds or arthropods
  • Recoverd cats become carriers
  • Clinical signs
    • Peracute disease is associated with severe anaemia and immunosuppression, and can be rapidly fatal
    • Fever, anaemia, depression, weakness and jaundice occur in the acute form
    • Anaemia, lethargy and weight loss occur in the chronic form
    • Recovery can occur with a regenerative bone marrow response
    • Severe feline infectious anaemia may occur in the presence of feline leukaemia virus
  • Diagnosis
    • Organism intermittently seen on the surface of red blood cells in Giemsa-stained blood smears
    • Immunofluorescence of blood smears
    • Reduced packed cell volume; regenerative anaemia
  • Treatment
    • Doxycycline for 3 weeks early in the course of the disease
    • Blood transfusion
    • Flea control


Canine haemobartonellosis

  • Dogs infected with Haemobartonella canis usually asymptomatic
  • Acute haemolytic anaemia may occur in dogs after splenectomy, immunosuppressive drug therapy or immunosuppressive infections


Q fever

  • Caused by Coxiella burnetti
  • Influenza-like disease of humans in contact with farm animals
  • Transmitted to humans by inhalation from parturient sheep, goats and cattle
  • Organisms replicate in female genital tract and mammary glands of ruminants
  • Shedding occurs in uterine discharges, foetal fluid and milk
  • Infections in animals usually subclinical
  • Sporadic abortions occur in sheep, goats, cattle, cats
  • Infertility may result in ruminants, as well as placentitis or endometritis
  • Hepatitis, myocarditis and interstitial pneumonia may occur in affected foetuses
  • Diagnosis: MZN-stained smears of placental tissue and uterine discharges; immunofluorescence; PCR; culture; serology
  • Control: disposal of infected placenta and separation of pregnant ruminants; inactivated vaccines