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==Joints of the Distal Hindlimb==

==Joints of the Distal Hindlimb==

===Stifle Joint===

===Stifle Joint===

[[Image:stifle anatomy.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The Stifle, Cranial Caudal View - Copyright RVC]]

 

[[Image:stifle anatomy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Stifle, Cranial Caudal View - Copyright RVC]]

 

A composite, incongruent hinge joint made up of the '''femerotibial joint''' and '''femeropatellar joint'''.

A composite, incongruent hinge joint made up of the '''femerotibial joint''' and '''femeropatellar joint'''.

'''''Femerotibial Joint'''''

'''''Femerotibial Joint'''''

* Essentially this joint is formed between the femoral condyles and the proximal end of the tibia.

 

* A '''meniscus''' exists between each condyle and the tibia to compensate for any incongruency of the articular surfaces. The meniscus is a semilunar fibrocartilage with a thick, convex peripheral border and central thin, concave border. The surface facing the femoral condyles is concave and facing the tibia it is flattened.  

Essentially, this joint is formed between the femoral condyles and the proximal end of the tibia. A '''meniscus''' exists between each condyle and the tibia to compensate for any incongruency of the articular surfaces. The meniscus is a semilunar, fibrocartilage with a thick, convex peripheral border and central thin, concave border. The surface facing the femoral condyles is concave and facing the tibia it is flattened. As a condylar joint, the principal movements are '''flexion''' and '''extension''', but due to the presence of the menisci there is a limited amount of rotation. The '''fibrous layer''' of the joint capsule attaches to the margins of the articular surfaces and menisci and so completely encircles the femoral condyles. The '''synovial layer''' of the capsule covers the cruciates and forms a partition between the medial and lateral parts of the joint. These sacs are further seperated by the menisci into a proximal and distal communicating compartments. The lateral femerotibial joint contains two pouches; one ensheathes the origin of the tendinous origin of the politeal and the other ensheathes the origin of the long digital extensor at the extensor fossa.

* As a condylar joint the principal movements are '''flexion''' and '''extension''', but due to the presence of the menisci there is a limited amount of rotation.

 

* The '''fibrous layer''' of the joint capsule attaches to the margins of the articular surfaces and menisci and so completely encircles the femoral condyles.

* The '''synovial layer''' of the capsule covers the cruciates and forms a partition between the medial and lateral parts of the joint. These sacs are further seperated by the menisci into a proximal and distal communicating compartments.  

* The lateral femerotibial joint contains two pouches; one ensheathes the origin of the tendinous origin of the politeal and the other ensheathes the origin of the long digital extensor at the extensor fossa.

'''''Meniscal Ligaments'''''

'''''Meniscal Ligaments'''''

* '''Cranial tibial ligaments of the menisci''' - connecting the cranial aspect of the menisci to the medial and lateral cranial intercondyloid area of the tibia.

 

* '''Caudal tibial ligaments of the menisci''' - the medial ligament connects the caudal angle of the medial meniscus to the caudal intercondyloid area of the tibia. The lateral ligament connects the caudal angle of the lateral meniscus to the popliteal notch of the tibia.

'''Cranial tibial ligaments of the menisci''' - connecting the cranial aspect of the menisci to the medial and lateral cranial intercondyloid area of the tibia.

* '''Femoral ligament of the lateral meniscus''' - connects the caudal angle of the lateral meniscus to the inside aspect of the medial femoral condyle.

 

* '''Transverse ligament''' - connects the cranial angles of the lateral and medial menisci. Found in carnivores and cattle.

'''Caudal tibial ligaments of the menisci''' - the medial ligament connects the caudal angle of the medial meniscus to the caudal intercondyloid area of the tibia. The lateral ligament connects the caudal angle of the lateral meniscus to the popliteal notch of the tibia.

 

'''Femoral ligament of the lateral meniscus''' - connects the caudal angle of the lateral meniscus to the inside aspect of the medial femoral condyle.

 

'''Transverse ligament''' - connects the cranial angles of the lateral and medial menisci. Found in carnivores and cattle.

 

'''''Femerotibial ligaments'''''

'''''Femerotibial ligaments'''''

*'''Lateral and Medial Collateral Ligaments''' - The lateral connects the lateral epicondyle of the femur to both the lateral condyle of the tibia and the head of the fibula. The medial connects the medial epicondyle of the femur to just distal to the margin of the medial condyle of the tibia. This ligament fuses with the joint capsule and medial meniscus.

 

*'''Cranial and Caudal Cruciate Ligaments''' - These ligaments sit in the intercondyloid fossa of the femur inbetween the two synovial sacs. The cranial connects the lateral femoral condyle to the central intercondylar area of the tibia. The caudal connects the medial femoral condyle to the popliteal notch of the tibia.  

'''Lateral and Medial Collateral Ligaments''' - The lateral connects the lateral epicondyle of the femur to both the lateral condyle of the tibia and the head of the fibula. The medial connects the medial epicondyle of the femur to just distal to the margin of the medial condyle of the tibia. This ligament fuses with the joint capsule and medial meniscus.

*'''Oblique Popliteal Ligament''' - This is made of fibrous strands that are embedded in the joint capsule and run in latero-proximal to medial-distal direction.

 

'''Cranial and Caudal Cruciate Ligaments''' - These ligaments sit in the intercondyloid fossa of the femur inbetween the two synovial sacs. The cranial connects the lateral femoral condyle to the central intercondylar area of the tibia. The caudal connects the medial femoral condyle to the popliteal notch of the tibia.  

 

'''Oblique Popliteal Ligament''' - This is made of fibrous strands that are embedded in the joint capsule and run in latero-proximal to medial-distal direction.

 

'''''Femeropatellar Joint'''''

'''''Femeropatellar Joint'''''

* This joint is formed between the articular surfaces of the patella and femur. The ligaments of this joint can be grouped as the '''femeropatellar ligaments''' and the '''patellar ligament'''.

 

* Both these groups of ligaments are highly species specific and are discussed on the species pages.

This joint is formed between the articular surfaces of the patella and femur. The ligaments of this joint can be grouped as the '''femeropatellar ligaments''' and the '''patellar ligament'''. Both these groups of ligaments are highly species specific and are discussed on the species pages.

===Patella===

===Patella===

* This is the largest '''sesamoid bone''' and lies in the tendinous insertion of the quadriceps.

 

* The articular surface is on the caudal aspect and faces the femur. The free surface faces cranial and is palpable in all species.

This is the largest '''sesamoid bone''' and lies in the tendinous insertion of the quadriceps. The articular surface is on the caudal aspect and faces the femur. The free surface, faces cranial and is palpable in all species. The base is at the proximal end and is rough due to muscular attachments. The apex is at the distal end.

* The base is at the proximal end and is rough due to muscular attachments.

* The apex is at the distal end.

===Tarsal Joint/Hock===

===Tarsal Joint/Hock===

A '''composite joint''' between the tibia, fibula, tarsal bones and metatarsals which has four levels of articulation. The joint capsules' '''fibrous layer''' extends from the distal crus to the proximal metatarsal and thus covers the whole tarsus. The '''synovial layer''' forms four synovial sacs for each level of articulation. The points of articulations are: '''Tarsocrural Joint''', '''Proximal Intertarsal Joint''', '''Distal Intertarsal Joint''' and the '''Tarsometatarsal Joint'''. The intratarsal joints are very closely apposed and so allow very little movement.

 

A '''composite joint''' between the tibia, fibula, tarsal bones and metatarsals which has four levels of articulation. The joint capsules' '''fibrous layer''', extends from the distal crus to the proximal metatarsal and thus covers the whole tarsus. The '''synovial layer''' forms four synovial sacs for each level of articulation. The points of articulations are: '''Tarsocrural Joint''', '''Proximal Intertarsal Joint''', '''Distal Intertarsal Joint''' and the '''Tarsometatarsal Joint'''. The intratarsal joints are very closely apposed and so allow very little movement.

 

'''''Tarsocrural Joint'''''

'''''Tarsocrural Joint'''''

* A cochlear joint formed by the articulation of the trochlea of the talus and the distal end of the tibia. And the articulation between the calcaneous and the distal end of the fibula or lateral malleolus (cows).  

 

* It has a large joint capsule that communicates with the proximal intertarsal joint. It has two plantar pouches that extends proximally above the medial and lateral malleoli. It also has a dorsal pouch that continues under the medial tendon of the cranial tibial muscle.

A cochlear joint, formed by the articulation of the trochlea of the talus and the distal end of the tibia. It is also the articulation between the calcaneous and the distal end of the fibula or lateral malleolus in cows. It has a large joint capsule that communicates with the proximal intertarsal joint. It has two plantar pouches that extend proximally above the medial and lateral malleoli. It also has a dorsal pouch that continues under the medial tendon of the cranial tibial muscle.

 

'''''Proximal Intertarsal Joint'''''

'''''Proximal Intertarsal Joint'''''

* Proximally the talus and calcaneus articulate and distally the central and forth tarsal bone articulate.

 

* The extent of direction of movement is species variable.

Proximally, the talus and calcaneus articulate, and distally the central and forth tarsal bone articulate. The extent of direction of movement is species variable. A rigid joint is formed by the central tarsal bone and the small tarsal bones distally.  

* A rigid joint formed by the central tarsal bone and the small tarsal bones distally.  

 

'''''Tarsometatarsal Joint'''''

'''''Tarsometatarsal Joint'''''

* This is the articulation between the distal tarsal bones and the metatarsal bones.

 

This is the articulation between the distal tarsal bones and the metatarsal bones.

 

'''''Ligaments of the Tarsus'''''

'''''Ligaments of the Tarsus'''''

* '''Long lateral collateral ligament''' connects the lateral malleolus to the proximal part of the lateral metatarsal bones. Along it's course it attaches to the lateral tarsal bones.

 

* '''Short lateral collateral ligament''' connects the lateral malleoulus to the calcaneus and the talus and lies deep to the long lateral collateral ligament.

1. '''Long lateral collateral ligament'''  

* '''Long medial collateral ligament''' connects the medial malleolus to the proximal part of the medial metatarsal bones. Along it's course it attaches to the medial tarsal bones.

 

* '''Short medial collateral ligament''' connects the medial malleolus to the calcaneus and the talus and is deep to the long ligament.

Connects the lateral malleolus to the proximal part of the lateral metatarsal bones. Along it's course it attaches to the lateral tarsal bones.

* '''Dorsal tarsal ligament''' is a triangular sheath, which is spread between the medial part of the talus, the central and 3rd tarsal bones and the 3rd and 4th metatarsal bones.

 

* '''Long plantar ligament''' is a strong ligament connecting the calcaneus to the central and 4th tarsal bones and the proximal part of the 3rd and 4th metatarsal bones.  

2. '''Short lateral collateral ligament'''  

* Numerous short ligaments bridge the joint spaces in the intratarsal joints.

 

* Strong fascia help keep tendons in place and are partially fused to the joint capsule. The most important are the '''proximal extensor retinaculum''', which holds down the tendon of the long digital extensor and the cranial tibial muscles, and the '''distal extensor retinaculum''', which holds the tendon of the long digital extensor in place.

Connects the lateral malleoulus to the calcaneus and the talus, and lies deep to the long lateral collateral ligament.

 

3. '''Long medial collateral ligament'''  

 

Connects the medial malleolus to the proximal part of the medial metatarsal bones. Along it's course it attaches to the medial tarsal bones.

 

4. '''Short medial collateral ligament'''  

 

Connects the medial malleolus to the calcaneus and the talus and is deep to the long ligament.

 

5. '''Dorsal tarsal ligament'''  

 

It is a triangular sheath, which is spread between the medial part of the talus, the central and 3rd tarsal bones and the 3rd and 4th metatarsal bones.

 

6. '''Long plantar ligament'''  

 

It is a strong ligament connecting the calcaneus to the central and 4th tarsal bones and the proximal part of the 3rd and 4th metatarsal bones.  

 

Numerous short ligaments bridge the joint spaces in the intratarsal joints. Strong fascia help keep tendons in place and are partially fused to the joint capsule. The most important are the '''proximal extensor retinaculum''', which holds down the tendon of the long digital extensor and the cranial tibial muscles, and the '''distal extensor retinaculum''', which holds the tendon of the long digital extensor in place.

==Muscles of the Hindlimb==

==Muscles of the Hindlimb==