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[[File:Anatomy and physiology of animals Relation btw sensory, relay & motor neurons.jpg|Right|400px|thumb|Spinal Cord Anatomy and physiology]]

[[File:Anatomy and physiology of animals Relation btw sensory, relay & motor neurons.jpg|Right|400px|thumb|Spinal Cord Anatomy and physiology]]

The spinal cord can be divided to several regions; '''cervical''' ''(C1-C6)'', '''cervicothoracic''' ''(C7-T2)'', '''thoracolumbar''' ''(T3-L3)'', '''lumbosacral''' ''(L3-S2)'' and '''sacral''' ''(S3 onwards)''. Nerves originating from the spinal cord and the segmental spinal nerves innervate the limbs.  

Nerves originating from the spinal cord and the segmental spinal nerves innervate the limbs.  

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The '''forelimb nerves''' include the '''suprascapular''' ''(C5-6)'', the '''musculocutaneous''' ''(C5-7)'', the '''ulna/median''' (Originates from the brachial plexus, which is formed from ''C5-T1'') and the '''radial''' ''(C5-T1)''. The '''hindlimb nerves''' include the '''obturator''' ''(L2-4)'', the '''femoral''' ''(L2-4)'' and the '''sciatic''' ''(L4-S3)''. The sciatic nerve branches to the tibial nerve and the peroneal nerve.

The '''forelimb nerves''' include the '''suprascapular''' ''(C5-6)'', the '''musculocutaneous''' ''(C5-7)'', the '''ulna/median''' (Originates from the brachial plexus, which is formed from ''C5-T1'') and the '''radial''' ''(C5-T1)''.  

 

The '''hindlimb nerves''' include the '''obturator''' ''(L2-4)'', the '''femoral''' ''(L2-4)'' and the '''sciatic''' ''(L4-S3)''. The sciatic nerve branches to the tibial nerve and the peroneal nerve.

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== Structure and Function  ==

== Structure and Function  ==

The '''spinal cord''' is constructed of the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Marginal_layer|marginal layer]]&nbsp;''which has axons and white matter, the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Mantle|mantle]]'' which contains cell bodies and grey matter and the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Spinal_Canal|spinal canal]]''. This canal conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and autonomic) to the brain, conducts motor information from the brain to various effectors and acts as a minor reflex center. <br> <br>

The '''spinal cord''' is constructed of the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Marginal layer|marginal layer]] ''which has axons and white matter, the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Mantle|mantle]]'' which contains cell bodies and grey matter and the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Spinal Canal|spinal canal]]''. This canal conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and autonomic) to the brain, conducts motor information from the brain to various effectors and acts as a minor reflex center. <br> <br>

==Function==

==Sensory Pathways==

 

[[File:Spinal cord tracts - English.png|right|200px|thumb|Spinal cord tracts]]

[[Image:cerebrumbrainstemcerebellum.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cerebrum, brain stem and cerebellum. Image courtesy of BioMed Archive]]

The spinal cord contains a number of [[Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology|sensory (ascending) pathways]] or tracts contained within the [[Central Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology#White Matter|white matter]]. These pathways allow sensory information such as pain, touch, temperature or kinaesthesia (conscious proprioception) to be passed through the spinal cord and on to higher levels of the brain.  

 

The central nervous system consists of; the brain (Prefix = "encephalo") and the spinal cord (Prefix = "myelo").

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

White matter consists of accumulations of myelinated axons. Myelinated axons are wrapped in '''myelin'''. Myelin is compsed of lipid and protein in an 80:20 ratio. It insulates axons to give efficient action potential conduction. Myelin is provided by [[Neurons - Anatomy & Physiology#Oligodendrocytes|oligodendrocytes]] in the CNS. They respond poorly in injury. Schwann cells in the PNS myelinate one axon only. A "funiculus" is a large region of white matter in the spinal cord.

[[Image:Braincosssection.jpg|thumb|right|250px|White and grey matter. Image courtesy of BioMed Archive]]

 

 

The outer portions of the cerebral cortex and the inner portions of the spinal cord are composed of grey matter. Grey matter is also found in coloumns and scattered in brainstem nuclei. It is composed of neuronal cell bodies, plus glial cells.

 

 

====Lower Motor Neuron (LMN)====

 

LMNs are efferent neurons which connect the CNS to smooth or skeletal muscle. Autonomic LMNs connect to smooth muscle. Somatic LMNs connect to skeletal muscle. Those innervating the muscles of the axial and peripheral skeleton have their cells bodies in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. Injury causes LMN weakness. This is characterised by; Depressed reflexes, decreased tone and neurogenic muscle atrophy.

 

 

The upper motor neuron comprises the motor system of the CNS. This is responsible for; Initiating voluntary movement and maintenance of tone and posture. In man, direct connections exist between neurons in the motor cortex and LMNs in the spinal cord. This is known as the "pyramidal system".

==Vasculature==

==Vasculature==

It is important to note that there is no direct vasculature to the spinal cord but instead there are a number of choroid plexuses that act as an exchanger between the vasculature of the spinal cord/brain and the fluid surrounding these structures. This distinction is referred to as the "blood-brain barrier".  

It is important to note that there is no direct vasculature to the spinal cord but instead there are a number of choroid plexuses that act as an exchanger between the vasculature of the spinal cord/brain and the fluid surrounding these structures. This distinction is referred to as the [[Blood Brain Barrier - Anatomy & Physiology|"blood-brain barrier"]].  

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The vasculature of the spinal cord has a close relationship with the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the subarachnoid space. This CSF effectively forms a water jacket that buoys up the spinal cord and protects it from external influences. Therefore it is extremely important that the CSF has the appropriate properties in order to undertake this role. The vasculature of the spinal cord therefore has to provide the appropriate level of oxygen, pressure, pH and nutrients to maintain homeostasis of the spinal cord. As the CSF also performs this role within the skull, the vasculature of the brain therefore has an important relationship with every aspect of the ventricles and subarachnoid space within the central nervous system.

The vasculature of the spinal cord has a close relationship with the [[Cerebral Spinal Fluid - Anatomy & Physiology|cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)]] within the subarachnoid space. This CSF effectively forms a water jacket that buoys up the spinal cord and protects it from external influences. Therefore it is extremely important that the CSF has the appropriate properties in order to undertake this role. The vasculature of the spinal cord therefore has to provide the appropriate level of oxygen, pressure, pH and nutrients to maintain homeostasis of the spinal cord. As the CSF also performs this role within the skull, the vasculature of the brain has an important relationship with every aspect of the ventricles and subarachnoid space within the central nervous system.

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===Arterial Supply===

===Arterial Supply===

The spinal cord is supplied by three main arteries that run along its length; the '''Ventral Spinal Artery''', and paired '''Dorsolateral Spinal Arteries'''. The ventral spinal artery is the largest and follows the ventral fissure of the spinal cord. The dorsolateral arteries run close to the groove from which the dorsal nerve roots arise. Together with these three main arteries, the spinal cord is also supplied by branches from regional arteries including branches in the cervical, intercostal, lumbar and sacral regions. These regional arteries enter the spine at the intervertebral foramina, often accompanying the roots of spinal nerves. These regional arteries also form plexuses into which the three main longitudinal arteries run. The number and type of arteries that enter the spine from regional branches varies with species and also between individuals.  

The spinal cord is supplied by three main arteries that run along its length; the '''Ventral Spinal Artery''', and paired '''Dorsolateral Spinal Arteries'''. The ventral spinal artery is the largest and follows the ventral fissure of the spinal cord. The dorsolateral arteries run close to the groove from which the dorsal nerve roots arise. Together with these three main arteries, the spinal cord is also supplied by branches from regional arteries including branches in the cervical, intercostal, lumbar and sacral regions. These regional arteries enter the spine at the intervertebral foramina, often accompanying the roots of spinal nerves. These regional arteries also form plexuses into which the three main longitudinal arteries run. The number and type of arteries that enter the spine from regional branches varies with species and also between individuals.  

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The '''ventral spinal artery''' supplies the main "core" of the spinal cord, i.e. the [[Central Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology#Grey Matter|grey matter]]. It also partially supplies the white matter via the ventral fissure, although the majority of the white matter is supplied by radial branches of the dorsolateral arteries. There are also a number of anastamoses between both sets of arteries.

The ventral spinal artery supplies the main "core" of the spinal cord, i.e. the grey matter. It also partially supplies the whote matter via the ventral fissure, although the majority of the white matter is supplied by radial branches of the dorsolateral arteries. There are also a number of anastamoses between both sets of arteries.

 

===Venous Supply===

===Venous Supply===

Along the length of the spinal cord runs the vertebral venous plexus which drains the blood from the vertebrae and surrounding musculature. This venous plexus gives rise to veins that then leave the vertebrae via the intervertebral foramina and then go on to join the major venous channels of the neck and the trunk; namely the vertebral, cranial caval, azygous and caudal caval veins.   

Along the length of the spinal cord runs the vertebral venous plexus which drains the blood from the vertebrae and surrounding musculature. This venous plexus gives rise to veins that then leave the vertebrae via the intervertebral foramina and then go on to join the major venous channels of the neck and the trunk; namely the vertebral, cranial caval, azygous and caudal caval veins.   

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The venous plexus consists of paired channels within the epidural space that lie in a ventral position to the spinal cord. Each side of the pair is connected to its opposing plexus around the vertebrae resulting in a ladder-type pattern of venous vessels. The connections between each side are via the intervertebral foramina and these vessels are in close proximity to the spinal nerves.  

The venous plexus consists of paired channels within the epidural space that lie in a '''ventral''' position to the spinal cord. Each side of the pair is connected to its opposing plexus around the vertebrae resulting in a ladder-type pattern of venous vessels. The connections between each side are via the intervertebral foramina and these vessels are in close proximity to the spinal nerves.  

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The veins around the plexuses have no valves and can theoretically pass blood in either direction. The vessels are able to adjust their size/pressure to compensate for intrathoracic pressure. This intermittency of flow causes an increased risk of septic or neoplastic disease within the vertebral column. Where blood is impeded or where flow may become temporarily held stagnant, this may allow tumor seeds or micro-organisms to settle within tributaries.

The veins around the plexuses have no valves and can theoretically pass blood in either direction. The vessels are able to adjust their size/pressure to compensate for intrathoracic pressure. This intermittency of flow causes an increased risk of septic or neoplastic disease within the vertebral column. Where blood is impeded or where flow may become temporarily held stagnant, this may allow tumor seeds or micro-organisms to settle within tributaries.

===Spinal Cord Blood Supply Considerations===

===Spinal Cord Blood Supply Considerations===

When giving an epidural or a subarachnoid puncture, the above described anatomy results in their being an increased risk of haemorrhage. The risk of haemorrhage is greatest at the atlanto-occipital space where there are particularly large tributaries.

When giving an epidural or a subarachnoid puncture, the above described anatomy results in there being an increased risk of haemorrhage. The risk of haemorrhage is greatest at the atlanto-occipital space where there are particularly large tributaries.

==Lymphatics==

==Lymphatics==

==Histology==

==Histology==

[[File:Anterior spinal cord - very low mag.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Ventral Fissure Spinal Cord (low mag) Note: Image is effectively upside down]]

[[File:Anterior spinal cord - very low mag.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Ventral Fissure Spinal Cord (low mag) Note: Image is effectively upside down]]

 

===Macroscopic Histology===

===Macroscopic Histology===

The above image shows a cross section of the ventral portion of the spinal cord using an H&E stain. The gray matter of the spinal cord appears roughly in the form of a butterfly and is stained darker on this image. Only the ventral horns of the gray matter are visible on this image. The connection between the two sides of the butterfly is called the  "gray commissure". Cell bodies within the ventral horns of the gray matter can be so large that they can often be seen macroscopically.

The image shows a cross section of the ventral portion of the spinal cord using an H&E stain. The gray matter of the spinal cord appears roughly in the form of a butterfly and is stained darker on this image. Only the ventral horns of the gray matter are visible on this image. The connection between the two sides of the butterfly is called the  "gray commissure". Cell bodies within the ventral horns of the gray matter can be so large that they can often be seen macroscopically.

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If stains such as toluidine blue are used, Nissl bodies within the cytoplasm of the cell bodies may become visible, appearing as large dark staining bodies. Nissl bodies do not extend into the axon hillock. Neuropil stains very faintly using toluidine blue.

If stains such as toluidine blue are used, Nissl bodies within the cytoplasm of the cell bodies may become visible, appearing as large dark staining bodies. Nissl bodies do not extend into the axon hillock. Neuropil stains very faintly using toluidine blue.

== Links ==

== Links ==

[[Nervous_and_Special_Senses_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|Central Nervous System & Peripheral Nervous System Physiology]]

[[Nervous_and_Special_Senses_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|Central Nervous System & Peripheral Nervous System Physiology]]

[[Spinal_Column_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|Spinal Column Anatomy and Physiology]]  

[[Spinal_Column_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|Spinal Column Anatomy and Physiology]]  

[[Category:Nervous_System_-_Anatomy_&_Physiology]]  

[[Category:Nervous_System_-_Anatomy_&_Physiology]]  

[[Category:To Do - A&P]]

[[Category:A&P Done]]