Changes

==Analgesia==

==Analgesia==

The concept of pre-emptive analgesia is the administration of analgesics preoperatively to reduce the severity of postoperative pain. It is important to distinguish between pre-emptive analgesia and alleviation of postoperative pain. In other words, pre-emptive analgesia may block sensitization, but it does not eliminate postoperative pain; additional measures are still required to ensure a comfortable recovery. The optimum form of pain therapy is continuous pre-emptive analgesia, continuously preventing the establishment of sensitization. <br><br>

The concept of pre-emptive analgesia is the administration of [[Analgesic Drugs|analgesics]] preoperatively to reduce the severity of postoperative pain. It is important to distinguish between pre-emptive analgesia and alleviation of postoperative pain. In other words, pre-emptive analgesia may block sensitization, but it does not eliminate postoperative pain; additional measures are still required to ensure a comfortable recovery. The optimum form of pain therapy is continuous pre-emptive analgesia, continuously preventing the establishment of sensitization. <br><br>

The administration of opioids or local anesthetic drugs block central sensitization and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) reduce the severity of the peripheral inflammatory response. The combined use of an opioid and an NSAID is more effective than using either drug alone. Local anesthetics (analgesics) can produce complete pain relief by blocking all sensory input from the affected area.

The administration of [[opioids]] or [[Local Anaesthetics|local anesthetic drugs]] block central sensitization and [[NSAIDs|nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)]] reduce the severity of the peripheral inflammatory response. The combined use of an opioid and an NSAID is more effective than using either drug alone. Local anesthetics (analgesics) can produce complete pain relief by blocking all sensory input from the affected area.

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'''Basic dental analgesic plan:'''

'''Basic dental analgesic plan:'''

==Local Anaesthesia==

==Local Anaesthesia==

Local anesthesia (LA) can be used to provide intra- and postoperative analgesia. In contrast to human patients, dogs and cats are not amenable to LA if conscious. So, the techniques are used when the animal is under GA.  ****see surgical procedures for techqniue*****<br><br>

Local anesthesia (LA) can be used to provide intra- and postoperative analgesia. In contrast to human patients, dogs and cats are not amenable to LA if conscious. So, the techniques are used when the animal is under GA.  <font color="red">****see surgical procedures for techqniue*****</font color><br><br>

When given prior to the start of a procedure, the use of LA may reduce the requirement for GA drugs during surgery. When given at the end of a procedure, prior to GA recovery, they will provide postoperative analgesia.<br><br>

When given prior to the start of a procedure, the use of LA may reduce the requirement for GA drugs during surgery. When given at the end of a procedure, prior to GA recovery, they will provide postoperative analgesia.<br><br>

Useful techniques in the oral cavity include infiltration anesthesia and regional nerve blocks.<br><br>

Useful techniques in the oral cavity include [[Local Infiltration|'''infiltration anesthesia''']] and [[Specific Nerve Blocks|'''regional nerve blocks''']].<br><br>

All clinically used local anesthetics are membrane-stabilizing agents. They prevent depolarization and thus stop or retard conduction of impulses. Sensation disappears in the following order: pain, cold, warmth, touch, joint and deep pressure. Procaine hydrochloride is the prototype of all local anesthetics. It is the standard drug for comparison of anesthetic effects. For LA in the oral cavity lidocaine, mepivacaine, bupivacaine and ropivacaine are all suitable. The local anesthetic drug chosen for postoperative pain relief should ideally have a long duration of action, and therefore bupivacaine (onset 15 minutes, duration 4–6 hours) is the drug of choice. Lidocaine can be used during surgery for more immediate effect.<br><br>

All clinically used local anesthetics are '''membrane-stabilizing agents'''. They prevent depolarization and thus stop or retard conduction of impulses. Sensation disappears in the following order: pain, cold, warmth, touch, joint and deep pressure. '''Procaine hydrochloride''' is the prototype of all local anesthetics. It is the standard drug for comparison of anesthetic effects. For LA in the oral cavity '''lidocaine, mepivacaine, bupivacaine and ropivacaine''' are all suitable. The local anesthetic drug chosen for postoperative pain relief should ideally have a long duration of action, and therefore '''bupivacaine '''(onset 15 minutes, duration 4–6 hours) '''is the drug of choice'''. Lidocaine can be used during surgery for more immediate effect.<br><br>

The mechanism of action of all local anesthetic drugs is similar. The salt of the anesthetic base (RNH+Cl–) is an ionizable quaternary amine with little or no anesthetic properties of its own because it is not lipid soluble and therefore not absorbed in the nerve membrane. After deposition in tissue that is slightly alkaline and has considerable buffering capacity, the anesthetic base is liberated as follows:

 

RNH+Cl– Cl– + RNH+ RN + H+<br><br>

The free anesthetic base (RN) is absorbed in the outer lipid nerve membrane, where anesthetic action takes place. If sufficient local buffering capacity exists to remove the dissociated H+, this reaction proceeds to the right, and active base is liberated which exerts an anesthetic effect. In inflamed or infected tissue, however, the pH is acidic and the result is that only small amounts of free base dissociate from the anesthetic salt, resulting in poor local anesthesia.<br><br>

The mechanism of action of all local anesthetic drugs is similar. The salt of the anesthetic base (RNH⁺Cl^–) is an ionizable quaternary amine with little or no anesthetic properties of its own because it is not lipid soluble and therefore not absorbed in the nerve membrane. After deposition in tissue that is slightly alkaline and has considerable buffering capacity, the anesthetic base is liberated as follows:<br><br>

In human dentistry and oral surgery, vasoconstrictors (adrenaline, L-noradrenaline) are routinely used in combination with the local anesthetic. The main reason is to delay systemic absorption of the local anesthetic, thus reducing the toxicity and increasing the margin of safety. Local anesthetics produce analgesia when given in small doses intravenously, but are potent proconvulsants and can induce marked myocardial depression and cardiac dysrythmias when administered systemically. The addition of vasoconstrictors, by reducing systemic absorption of the local anesthetic, will also increase intensity and prolong anesthetic activity. However, they may increase the risk of cardiac arrhythmias and ventricular fibrillation. In veterinary dentistry and oral surgery, local anesthetics are generally used without the addition of vasoconstrictors.

<font color="red">RNH⁺Cl^– <--> Cl^– + RNH⁺ <-->  Cl^– + RN + H⁺</font color><br><br>

The free anesthetic base (RN) is absorbed in the outer lipid nerve membrane, where anesthetic action takes place. If sufficient local buffering capacity exists to remove the dissociated H⁺, this reaction proceeds to the right, and active base is liberated which exerts an anesthetic effect. In inflamed or infected tissue, however, the pH is acidic and the result is that only small amounts of free base dissociate from the anesthetic salt, resulting in poor local anesthesia.<br><br>

In human dentistry and oral surgery, vasoconstrictors (adrenaline, L-noradrenaline) are routinely used in combination with the local anesthetic. The main reason is to delay systemic absorption of the local anesthetic, thus reducing the toxicity and increasing the margin of safety. Local anesthetics produce analgesia when given in small doses intravenously, but are potent proconvulsants and can induce marked myocardial depression and cardiac dysrythmias when administered systemically. The addition of vasoconstrictors, by reducing systemic absorption of the local anesthetic, will also increase intensity and prolong anesthetic activity. However, they may increase the risk of [[:Category:Arrhythmia|cardiac arrhythmias]] and ventricular fibrillation. In veterinary dentistry and oral surgery, local anesthetics are generally used without the addition of vasoconstrictors.

[[Category:Dental and Oral Medication]]

[[Category:Dental and Oral Medication]]